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Vocabulary Development 1 1 Pengembangan Kosakata
Introduction Pengantar
Although somewhat overlooked in recent years, vocabulary development is a Walaupun agak diabaikan dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, perkembangan kosakata adalah
critical aspect of literacy. aspek kritis keaksaraan. In past years, (1940-1970) it was believed that vocabulary had Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, (1940-1970) diyakini bahwa kosakata telah
been emphasized too much in classrooms and soon thereafter a backlash emerged where terlalu banyak ditekankan di dalam kelas dan tidak lama kemudian sebuah serangan balik muncul di mana
vocabulary development inside of the classroom was neglected (Allen, 1983, p.1). pengembangan kosakata dalam kelas itu diabaikan (Allen, 1983, hal.1). Often Sering
it is held that a large vocabulary is an indicator of intelligence and educational itu adalah menyatakan bahwa sebuah kosakata besar merupakan indikator dari kecerdasan dan pendidikan
achievement, as evidenced in education practices today by the use of verbal measures on prestasi, seperti yang dibuktikan dalam pendidikan praktek hari ini dengan menggunakan tindakan verbal pada
intelligence tests and college entrance exams. intelijen tes dan ujian masuk perguruan tinggi. Although there is a strong correlation Meskipun ada hubungan yang kuat
between a vast amount of word knowledge and its reflection on one's intelligence, the antara sejumlah besar pengetahuan kata dan refleksi terhadap kecerdasan satu,
implications of deliberate vocabulary instruction are far more salient. implikasi dari instruksi kosakata yang disengaja jauh lebih penting.
For the purposes of this paper we will define vocabulary development as Untuk keperluan makalah ini kita akan mendefinisikan pengembangan kosa kata sebagai
“instruction in word meanings that must go beyond the definition and include experiences "Instruksi dalam arti kata yang harus melampaui definisi dan mencakup pengalaman
in which the students build relationships between new words and what she/he already di mana siswa membangun hubungan antara kata-kata baru dan apa yang dia / dia sudah
knows” (Roberts, 1999, p. 65). tahu "(Roberts, 1999, hal 65). We will also define vocabulary development to include Kami juga akan menentukan pengembangan kosa kata untuk memasukkan
“providing extensive information to students about when and where to apply strategies, "Memberikan informasi lengkap kepada siswa tentang kapan dan di mana untuk menerapkan strategi,
as well as information about the learning benefits produced by use of strategies” serta informasi tentang manfaat belajar yang dihasilkan dengan menggunakan strategi "
(Pressley, 1998, p. 211). (Pressley, 1998, hal 211). We will incorporate the definition underscored by Thomas Kami akan menggabungkan definisi menggarisbawahi oleh Thomas
Gunning (1996) “a rich store of words, which allows us to transmit knowledge with Gunning (1996) "toko kaya kata-kata, yang memungkinkan kita untuk mengirimkan pengetahuan dengan
precision and imagination” (p. 163). presisi dan imajinasi "(hal. 163). And last Janis M. Harmon (1999) defines word Dan terakhir Janis M. Harmon (1999) mendefinisikan kata
learning to be “employing multiple strategies to gain knowledge of new words, including belajar menjadi "menggunakan beberapa strategi untuk mendapatkan pengetahuan tentang kata-kata baru, termasuk
making use of context, drawing on different types of content connections, doing word- memanfaatkan konteks, menggambar pada berbagai jenis koneksi konten, melakukan kata
level analysis and using syntactically appropriate synonyms” (p. 304). analisis tingkat dan menggunakan sintaksis sinonim yang tepat "(hal. 304). Juxtaposing each Juxtaposing masing-masing
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Vocabulary Development 2 Kosakata Pembangunan 2
of these definitions gives us a broad perspective of vocabulary development , laden with definisi ini memberi kita perspektif yang luas pengembangan kosa kata, sarat dengan
meaning, purpose and relevance. makna, tujuan dan relevansi.
Rationale Alasan
For many years, it was generally believed that sophisticated readers merely Selama bertahun-tahun, secara umum percaya bahwa pembaca hanya canggih
sampled or surveyed text. sampel atau disurvei teks. On the basis of predictions about what words and letters they Atas dasar prediksi tentang apa kata dan surat yang mereka
would see, readers were thought to look at words and letters just long enough to see if akan melihat, pembaca dianggap untuk melihat kata-kata dan huruf cukup lama untuk melihat apakah
their predictions were confirmed (Cunningham, 1998, p. 197). prediksi mereka dikonfirmasi (Cunningham, 1998, hal 197). Frequent readers Sering pembaca
understand the relationship letters have with one another. memahami hubungan huruf memiliki satu sama lain. They also recognize word Mereka juga mengenali kata
patterns that are both familiar and unfamiliar to them. pola yang akrab dan asing bagi mereka. When a frequent reader encounters Ketika pembaca sering pertemuan
a word formation that is unfamiliar they will stop to analyze the word. pembentukan kata yang asing mereka akan berhenti untuk menganalisis kata. Eye-movement Eye-gerakan
research carried out with computerized tracking has shown that, in reality, readers look at penelitian dilakukan dengan pelacakan komputerisasi telah menunjukkan bahwa, pada kenyataannya, pembaca melihat
every word and almost every letter of each word. setiap kata dan hampir setiap huruf setiap kata. However, for experienced readers the Namun, untuk mengalami pembaca
amount of time spent on processing each letter is incredibly small—only a few jumlah waktu yang digunakan untuk proses setiap huruf sangat kecil hanya beberapa
hundredths of a second (1989, Rayner & Pollatsek, as cited in Cunningham 1998). seratus detik (1989, Rayner & Pollatsek, seperti dikutip dalam Cunningham 1998). How Bagaimana
does this information support the need for direct vocabulary instruction? apakah informasi ini mendukung kebutuhan instruksi kosa kata langsung? Being that Menjadi yang
experienced readers read often, they better understand word formation. pembaca mengalami sering membaca, mereka lebih memahami pembentukan kata. “The "The
astonishingly fast letter recognition within familiar words and patterns is explained by the menakjubkan cepat surat pengakuan dalam kata-kata akrab dan pola dijelaskan oleh
fact that our brains expect certain letters to occur in sequence with other letters” kenyataan bahwa otak kita mengharapkan surat tertentu terjadi dalam urutan dengan huruf lainnya "
(Cunningham, 1998, pp. 97-98). (Cunningham, 1998, hlm 97-98). Most of the time as we read, we think the words in our Sebagian besar waktu seperti yang kita baca, kita berpikir kata-kata dalam kita
mind. pikiran. The more accustomed we become to word patterns depends on how often we see Semakin terbiasa kita menjadi pola kata bergantung pada seberapa sering kita melihat
and recognize them. dan mengenal mereka. As we read, we look very quickly at almost all of the letters of each Seperti kita membaca, kita terlihat sangat cepat pada hampir semua huruf masing-masing
word. kata. Words we have read before are instantly recognized and processed as we see Kata-kata kita telah membaca sebelum akan segera diakui dan diproses seperti yang kita lihat
them. mereka. Consequently, the words that we do not recognize “easily interfere with Akibatnya, kata-kata yang kita tidak mengenal "mudah mengganggu
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Vocabulary Development 3 Kosakata Pembangunan 3
comprehending text. memahami teks. As a result, studies show that vocabulary problems cause Akibatnya, studi menunjukkan bahwa masalah-masalah kosakata menyebabkan
comprehension difficulties” (1999, as cited in Roberts, Graves, Juel, & Graves, 1998, p. pemahaman kesulitan "(1999, seperti dikutip dalam Roberts, Graves, Juel, & Graves, 1998, hal
66). 66).
Vocabulary instruction has not been at the forefront of educational writing and Kosakata instruksi tidak berada di garis depan pendidikan dan penulisan
research. penelitian. Although The Reading Teacher has published articles related to word Meskipun Guru Membaca telah menerbitkan artikel yang berhubungan dengan kata
recognition and comprehension strategies, “there have been no articles devoted to pengakuan dan pemahaman strategi, "tidak ada artikel yang ditujukan untuk
vocabulary instruction during the past year. kosakata instruksi selama setahun terakhir. In 1997 only 2% of all submissions to The Pada tahun 1997 hanya 2% dari seluruh pengajuan The
Reading Teacher dealt with vocabulary instruction” (Padak & Rasinski, 1998). Membaca Guru ditangani dengan instruksi kosakata "(Padak & Rasinski, 1998). However, Namun,
vocabulary instruction is an integral component of teaching children reading instruksi kosakata merupakan komponen yang tidak terpisahkan dari anak-anak mengajar membaca
comprehension. pemahaman. There have been numerous studies on the rates of vocabulary Ada banyak penelitian pada tingkat kosakata
acquisition. akuisisi. Due to the large number of new words students encounter throughout their Karena banyaknya jumlah mahasiswa baru perjumpaan kata-kata sepanjang mereka
school years, such studies reveal the significance of formal vocabulary instruction on tahun sekolah, studi tersebut mengungkapkan pentingnya pengajaran kosakata formal tentang
strategies and etymology of word meaning. strategi dan etimologi makna kata. Janis Harmon (1999), in “Initial Encounters Janis Harmon (1999), dalam "Encounters Perdana
with Unfamiliar Words in Independent Reading” states that Anderson and Nagy (1992) dengan Asing Kata-kata dalam Independen Membaca "menyatakan bahwa Anderson dan Nagy (1992)
calculated “elementary and high school students learn about 2,000 to 3,000 new words dihitung "siswa SMA dan SD belajar sekitar 2.000 sampai 3.000 kata-kata baru
every year” (p. 306). setiap tahun "(hal. 306). In another study by Nagy and Anderson (1984, as cited in Harmon, Dalam studi lain oleh Nagy dan Anderson (1984, seperti dikutip dalam Harmon,
1999) it was found that “middle school students gain some understanding of 1999) ditemukan bahwa "siswa sekolah menengah mendapatkan beberapa pemahaman tentang
approximately 3,000 to 4,000 new words each year, provided they read between 500,000 sekitar 3.000 hingga 4.000 kata-kata baru setiap tahun, asalkan mereka membaca antara 500.000
to one million words in running text per school year” (p. 306). satu juta kata dalam menjalankan teks per tahun sekolah "(hal. 306). Nagy et al broke these Nagy et al pecah ini
numbers down to three or four words a day. angka ke tiga atau empat kata per hari. Another study by Ruddell (1995) revealed Studi lain oleh Ruddell (1995) mengungkapkan
estimates that students learn up to eight or nine words a day. memperkirakan bahwa siswa belajar sampai delapan atau sembilan kata per hari. Last a study by Chall (1987, Terakhir sebuah studi oleh Chall (1987,
as cited in Gunning, 1996) states that the average child begins first grade with a store of sebagaimana dikutip dalam Gunning, 1996) menyatakan bahwa rata-rata anak mulai kelas satu dengan penyimpan
approximately 5,000 to 6,000 words. sekitar 5.000 sampai 6.000 kata. However, there are more than 315,000 entries on Namun, ada lebih dari 315.000 entri pada
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Vocabulary Development 4 Pengembangan Kosakata 4
2,500 pages in The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1994) . This is a 2.500 halaman dalam The Random House Dictionary of the Bahasa Inggris (1994). Ini adalah
silent tribute to the vastness of our spoken and written language. diam penghormatan kepada luasnya lisan dan tulisan bahasa kita. The abundance of new Kelimpahan baru
words poses a challenge to students who have not had any instruction on word learning. kata-kata yang menimbulkan tantangan bagi siswa yang tidak memiliki instruksi pada kata belajar.
Vocabulary within content areas is especially important since it constitutes both Kosakata dalam wilayah konten ini terutama penting karena keduanya merupakan
information students should know and words they need to function within the subject. informasi mahasiswa harus tahu dan kata-kata yang mereka butuhkan untuk berfungsi dalam subjek.
Direct instruction would then engage learners in strategies that would help them to instruksi langsung kemudian akan melibatkan peserta didik dalam strategi yang akan membantu mereka untuk
construct word meanings from written contexts as they use their language experiences for membangun arti kata dari konteks ditulis sebagai pengalaman mereka menggunakan bahasa mereka untuk
making connections with newly encountered words. membuat sambungan dengan ditemui kata-kata baru. Thus, with such a large number of Dengan demikian, dengan sejumlah besar
new words being introduced to students throughout their academic careers, vocabulary kata-kata baru yang diperkenalkan kepada siswa melalui karir akademik mereka, kosa kata
instruction would seem not only beneficial but necessary. instruksi akan tampak tidak hanya bermanfaat tapi perlu.
Correlation to Other Areas of Learning Korelasi untuk Daerah Lain Pembelajaran
The key to successful skills in vocabulary instruction is geared toward the active Kunci sukses dalam instruksi keterampilan kosakata diarahkan aktif
process of learning and ultimately the facilitation of a richer listening, speaking, reading, proses belajar dan akhirnya fasilitasi dari kaya mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca,
writing and comprehending vocabulary in all curriculum areas. menulis dan memahami kosa kata dalam semua bidang kurikulum.
Listening/Speaking Mendengar / Berbicara
At home, conversations are often one on one and the child's thoughts and interests Di rumah, percakapan sering satu-satu dan anak pikiran dan kepentingan
are cultivated. dibudidayakan. “This is an ideal environment for building basic language, but not for "Ini merupakan lingkungan yang ideal untuk membangun bahasa dasar, tetapi tidak untuk
long-term growth in all intellectual areas” (Gunning, 1996, p. 66). pertumbuhan jangka panjang di semua bidang intelektual "(Gunning, 1996, hal 66). Listening and Mendengarkan dan
speaking skills are closely intertwined. keterampilan berbicara sangat erat terkait. A student's oral vocabulary can provide teachers lisan kosa kata siswa A dapat menyediakan guru-guru
with a considerable amount of information about student's functioning range of word dengan cukup banyak informasi mengenai berbagai's fungsi mahasiswa kata
knowledge, which helps prescribe instruction strategies for teachers. pengetahuan, yang membantu menetapkan strategi instruksi untuk guru. Relevant and Relevan dan
systematic activities should be selected to enhance these skills through the use of kegiatan sistematis harus dipilih untuk meningkatkan keterampilan ini melalui penggunaan
vocabulary instruction. kosakata instruksi. For instance, giving oral reports on books read induces the Misalnya, memberi laporan oral pada baca buku menginduksi
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Vocabulary Development 5 Pengembangan Kosakata 5
concept of presenting information clearly and at an appropriate rate of speed so that konsep menyajikan informasi dengan jelas dan pada tingkat kecepatan yang tepat sehingga
listening comprehension is optimal. mendengarkan pemahaman yang optimal. “Use of language during such activities helps pupils "Penggunaan bahasa selama kegiatan seperti membantu murid
to achieve more optimally in speaking” (Ediger, 1999, p. 8). untuk mencapai lebih optimal dalam berbicara "(Ediger, 1999, hal 8). However, all students Namun, semua siswa
should be familiar with key vocabulary words in the report or inevitably the listening harus akrab dengan kosa kata kunci dalam laporan atau pasti mendengarkan
audience will tune out as unfamiliar vocabulary obstructs their comprehension. penonton akan lagu keluar sebagai kosa kata asing menghalangi pemahaman mereka.
Research shows that shared reading is an excellent way to help students construct Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa membaca bersama adalah cara terbaik untuk membantu siswa membangun
concepts about print. konsep tentang cetak. Shared reading requires that students draw upon their listening membaca bersama mengharuskan siswa memanfaatkan mereka mendengarkan
vocabulary to construct meaning from the spoken text. kosa kata untuk membangun makna dari teks lisan. “Throughout the story time "Sepanjang waktu cerita
activity, pupils should understand an increased number of facts, concepts and kegiatan, siswa harus memahami peningkatan jumlah fakta-fakta, konsep dan
generalizations” (Ediger, 1999, p. 8). generalisasi "(Ediger, 1999, hal 8). This necessary listening skill might then provide Hal ini diperlukan keterampilan mendengarkan maka mungkin memberikan
knowledge to students about unfamiliar words heard in context which will help “students pengetahuan siswa tentang kata-kata asing didengar dalam konteks yang akan membantu "siswa
understand increasingly complex vocabulary later read” (Ediger, p.10). memahami kosakata semakin kompleks kemudian membaca "(Ediger, hal.10). Listening centers Mendengarkan pusat
also help to enhance being a good listener, which entails listening for details, critical juga membantu untuk meningkatkan menjadi pendengar yang baik, yang mencakup mendengarkan untuk rincian, kritis
thinking skills, comprehension, and an understanding of sequential ideas and facts needed kemampuan berpikir, pemahaman, dan pemahaman gagasan sekuensial dan fakta yang diperlukan
for understanding. untuk memahami. “Listening skills help students value the thinking of others, and "Keterampilan Mendengarkan membantu siswa nilai pemikiran orang lain, dan
stimulates active participation which should help a discussion to move forward in merangsang partisipasi aktif yang seharusnya membantu diskusi untuk bergerak maju dalam
quality” (Ediger, p.10). kualitas "(Ediger, hal.10). However, listening and speaking skills cannot and will not Namun, mendengar dan kemampuan berbicara tidak dapat dan tidak akan
develop throughout lessons and activities unless students are familiar with key words mengembangkan seluruh pelajaran dan kegiatan kecuali siswa yang akrab dengan kata-kata kunci
throughout the text. seluruh teks.
Writing/Spelling Penulisan / Ejaan
There are direct implications on student's writing and spelling skills when they Ada implikasi langsung terhadap siswa menulis dan ejaan keterampilan ketika mereka
receive vocabulary instruction. menerima instruksi kosakata. Referring back to Thomas Gunning's definition (1996) Merujuk kembali ke Gunning's definisi Thomas (1996)
that states vocabulary development is a “rich store of words, which allows us to transmit yang menyatakan pengembangan kosakata yang kaya toko "dari kata-kata, yang memungkinkan kita untuk mengirim
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Vocabulary Development 6 Pengembangan Kosakata 6
knowledge with precision and imagination,” one can see how a rich vocabulary would pengetahuan dengan presisi dan imajinasi, "orang dapat melihat bagaimana kosakata yang kaya akan
help students better express and convey their thoughts and feelings (p. 163). membantu siswa lebih baik mengungkapkan dan menyampaikan pikiran dan perasaan mereka (hal. 163). “It is quite "Hal ini sangat
obvious that there are many writing opportunities for pupils pertaining to each curriculum jelas bahwa ada peluang menulis banyak murid yang berkaitan dengan kurikulum masing-masing
area” (Ediger, 1999, p.12). daerah "(Ediger, 1999, p.12). Pupils can actively engage in reading, rereading and Murid dapat terlibat aktif dalam membaca, membaca ulang dan
proofreading when sharing in writing experiences. proofreading ketika berbagi dalam pengalaman menulis. Students with rudimentary writing Siswa dengan tulisan elementer
abilities will have difficulties in expression in other aspects of communication. kemampuan akan mengalami kesulitan dalam ekspresi dalam aspek komunikasi lainnya. “Superior "Superior
writing is associated with frequent reading” (Gunning, 1996, p. 443). menulis berhubungan dengan membaca sering "(Gunning, 1996, hal 443). Student's writing Mahasiswa menulis
often reflects the genre and forms with which they are familiar. sering mencerminkan genre dan bentuk-bentuk yang mereka kenal.
Students should enjoy a full range of writing activities whereby their spelling Siswa harus menikmati berbagai tulisan kegiatan dimana mereka ejaan
skills are simultaneously strengthened. keterampilan secara simultan diperkuat. Often students use writing as a forum for Seringkali siswa menggunakan tulisan sebagai forum untuk
expression of words and thoughts that cannot be verbalized. ekspresi kata-kata dan pikiran yang tidak dapat Melisankan. Interactive journals, where Jurnal interaktif, di mana
teacher and student engage in written conversation, logs, poetry, letters, plays, guru dan siswa terlibat dalam percakapan tertulis, log, puisi, surat, drama,
summaries, will not only help students with their written expression but also with their ringkasan, tidak hanya akan membantu siswa dengan ekspresi tertulis mereka tetapi juga dengan mereka
spoken, reading and comprehending vocabulary. berbicara, membaca dan memahami kosa kata.
Research in developmental spelling has yielded important information. Penelitian di ejaan pembangunan telah menghasilkan informasi penting. Words Kata
that students consistently spell correctly are those words that have patterns that make bahwa siswa konsisten mengeja dengan benar adalah kata-kata yang memiliki pola yang membuat
sense to the students in theory of how words are spelled. akal untuk para siswa dalam teori bagaimana kata-kata yang dieja. Research by Bear and Penelitian oleh Bear dan
Templeton (1998) states that “it is crucial to make the link between the spelling of a Templeton (1998) menyatakan bahwa "sangat penting untuk membuat link antara ejaan dari
word, its meaning in text and its structural relationship to other words” (p. 230). kata, artinya dalam teks dan hubungan struktural untuk kata lain "(hal. 230).
Encouraging students to be curious about new words they encounter in their reading can Mendorong siswa menjadi ingin tahu tentang kata-kata baru yang mereka hadapi dalam membaca mereka dapat
act as a catalyst for further word study. bertindak sebagai katalis untuk penelitian kata lebih lanjut. Teachers can begin by introducing students to Guru dapat mulai dengan memperkenalkan siswa untuk
systematic examination of structural elements in words-bases, prefixes, suffixes—and sistematis pengujian elemen struktur dengan kata-pangkalan, prefiks, sufiks-dan
most importantly how the spelling of these elements depends on an understanding of their yang paling penting bagaimana ejaan elemen-elemen ini bergantung pada pemahaman tentang mereka
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Vocabulary Development 7 Pengembangan Kosakata 7
meaning. makna. “Importantly, spelling and vocabulary instruction come close together through "Yang penting, ejaan dan instruksi kosakata datang dekat bersama-sama melalui
sorting base words and suffixes. menyortir kata-kata dasar dan akhiran. Students examine how the suffix – ment affects the Siswa mengkaji bagaimana akhiran - an mempengaruhi
meaning of a word, such as in agreement or movement ” (1996, Bear & Templeton as arti dari sebuah kata, seperti dalam perjanjian atau gerakan "(1996, Bear & Templeton sebagai
cited in Cunningham, 1998, p. dikutip dalam Cunningham, 1998, hal 235). 235). Instructing students in word knowledge will directly Memerintahkan siswa dalam pengetahuan kata langsung akan
affect their spelling and appreciation for the spelling/meaning connection. mempengaruhi ejaan dan apresiasi terhadap ejaan / arti koneksi. Meanings are Makna
accessed through visual word recognition. diakses melalui pengakuan kata visual. According to the stored knowledge students Menurut pengetahuan siswa disimpan
have about words, they are able to form new words with similar meanings. memiliki sekitar kata-kata, mereka mampu membentuk kata-kata baru dengan arti yang sama. “Thinking of "Berpikir
a word that looks and sounds the same as a new word will help you quickly remember kata yang terlihat dan terdengar sama sebagai kata baru ini akan membantu Anda dengan cepat ingat
how to pronounce and spell the new word” (Cunningham, 1998, p. 203). cara mengucapkan dan mengeja kata baru "(Cunningham, 1998, hal 203).
Reading Membaca
The most devastating effects of a poor vocabulary are evident in reading Efek yang menghancurkan sebagian besar kosakata yang miskin yang jelas dalam membaca
comprehension. pemahaman. Studies on vocabulary instruction unequivocally identify vocabulary Studi instruksi tegas mengidentifikasi kosakata kosakata
knowledge as a major factor influencing reading ability where comprehension was pengetahuan sebagai faktor yang mempengaruhi kemampuan membaca utama di mana pemahaman adalah
improved as a result of teaching vocabulary (LaFlamme, 1997; Nagy, 1988-89). meningkat sebagai hasil pengajaran kosa kata (LaFlamme, 1997; Nagy, 1988-1989).
Literature showed that there are harsh realities revealed in the strong connection between Sastra menunjukkan bahwa ada realitas yang keras terungkap dalam hubungan yang kuat antara
word knowledge and comprehension. kata pengetahuan dan pemahaman. Implications for reading skills and comprehension Implikasi keterampilan membaca dan pemahaman
through vocabulary instruction have been researched and results found that “the melalui instruksi kosakata telah diteliti dan ditemukan bahwa "
inescapable bottom line is that good and frequent readers have better vocabularies than Intinya adalah bahwa tak terhindarkan dan sering pembaca yang baik memiliki kosakata yang lebih baik daripada
do poorer or reluctant readers” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 66). melakukan atau enggan pembaca miskin "(Rekrut, 1996, hal 66). Furthermore that “there is a Selanjutnya bahwa "ada
cyclical effect between vocabulary, reading and knowledge” (Johnson & Rasmussen, siklus pengaruh antara kosakata, membaca dan pengetahuan "(Johnson & Rasmussen,
1998, p. 1998, hal 204). 204).
Wide reading appears to be the best indirect way for students to acquire the membaca Wide tampaknya menjadi tidak langsung cara terbaik bagi siswa untuk mendapatkan
thousands of words they must learn annually. ribuan kata-kata mereka harus belajar setiap tahun. One reason for this is that the more Salah satu alasan untuk hal ini adalah bahwa semakin banyak
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Vocabulary Development 8 Pengembangan Kosakata 8
students read, the more words they encounter, the more familiarity they will have with siswa membaca, semakin banyak kata yang mereka hadapi, keakraban semakin mereka akan dengan
new words in various contexts. kata-kata baru dalam berbagai konteks. Another strong reason for advocating wide reading in Alasan lain yang kuat untuk advokasi membaca luas di
relation to vocabulary development is due to incidental word learning. berkaitan dengan pengembangan kosa kata adalah karena kata belajar insidental. “Incidental word "Kata insidentil
learning refers to the construction of word meanings as a function of independent belajar mengacu pada pembangunan arti kata sebagai fungsi dari independen
reading” (Harmon, 1999, p. 305). membaca "(Harmon, 1999, hal 305). This means that students who are avid readers will Ini berarti bahwa siswa yang akan pembaca setia
automatically encounter more new words for which they will construct and derive secara otomatis menemukan kata-kata baru yang lebih yang mereka akan membangun dan memperoleh
meaning from context. makna dari konteks. Proponents of this theory contend that the greatest amount of Pendukung teori ini berpendapat bahwa jumlah terbesar
vocabulary growth occurs through incidental learning. pertumbuhan kosakata terjadi melalui pembelajaran insidentil. Those students who read for 25 Mereka siswa yang membaca selama 25
minutes a day at the rate of 200 words per minute 200 days of the year will encounter one menit sehari di tingkat 200 kata per menit 200 hari tahun akan menghadapi satu
million words, of which 15,000 to 30,000 will be unfamiliar (Nagy, Anderson, & juta kata, yang 15.000 sampai 30.000 akan asing (Nagy, Anderson, &
Herman,1987, p. Herman, 1987, hal 306). 306). However, in addition to promoting wide reading in the classroom, Namun, selain untuk mempromosikan membaca luas di kelas,
teachers can and should provide students with strategies to decipher unknown words. guru dapat dan harus memberikan para siswa dengan strategi untuk menguraikan kata-kata yang tidak diketahui.
Despite the fact many would believe that direct instruction and incidental word learning Meskipun banyak yang akan percaya bahwa instruksi langsung dan kata insidentil belajar
are at opposite ends of the pendulum, they should not be viewed as conflicting berada di ujung-ujung pendulum, mereka tidak harus dipandang sebagai bertentangan
philosophies. filsafat. Both strategies are crucial to a child's vocabulary development. Kedua strategi sangat penting untuk's kosakata perkembangan seorang anak. Students Siswa
will ultimately benefit from both direct instruction in word learning and incidental word pada akhirnya akan mendapatkan keuntungan dari kedua instruksi langsung dalam kata belajar dan kata insidentil
learning through wide reading. belajar melalui membaca lebar.
Comprehension Success Pemahaman Sukses
One of the most poignant outcomes of direct vocabulary instruction is a marked Salah satu hasil yang paling pedih instruksi langsung kosakata yang ditandai
increase in student's comprehension. peningkatan's pemahaman siswa. “When we examine the relationship between "Ketika kita meneliti hubungan antara
vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, we typically find a very high pengetahuan kosa kata dan pemahaman membaca, kita biasanya menemukan sangat tinggi
correlation” (Blachowicz, 1999, p. 213). korelasi "(Blachowicz, 1999, hal 213). Correlation does not mean that there is an Korelasi tidak berarti bahwa ada
exclusive cause and effect relationship between the two, rather this paper seeks to show menyebabkan eksklusif dan hubungan pengaruh antara dua, bukan tulisan ini berupaya untuk menunjukkan
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Vocabulary Development 9 Pengembangan Kosakata 9
that there is a strong association between delibebrate vocabulary instruction and student’s bahwa ada hubungan yang kuat antara instruksi kosakata delibebrate dan siswa
comprehension. pemahaman. It is through words that readers gain access to their stores of knowledge Melalui kata-kata yang pembaca memperoleh akses ke toko mereka pengetahuan
and their understanding of the text itself. dan pemahaman mereka tentang teks itu sendiri. Student's mental encyclopedias typically reflect mental ensiklopedi Siswa biasanya mencerminkan
the frequency of exposure to certain words, which reveals meanings of words in context. frekuensi pajanan terhadap kata-kata tertentu, yang mengungkapkan makna dari kata-kata dalam konteks.
Consequently, students with a limited store of vocabulary words will most likely be Akibatnya, siswa dengan toko terbatas kosakata kemungkinan besar akan
limited in scope throughout their reading experiences. dibatasi dalam ruang lingkup seluruh pengalaman membaca mereka. Clearly, obstruction of Jelas, obstruksi dari
comprehension would depend on the amount of unfamiliar key words in an unknown pemahaman akan tergantung pada jumlah kata kunci asing dalam yang tidak diketahui
passage. bagian. “A large number of unknown words in a predictable text should not obstruct "Sejumlah besar kata tidak dikenal dalam teks diprediksi tidak boleh menghalangi
comprehension; whereas, even a few unknown key concepts can severely disrupt pemahaman, sedangkan, bahkan beberapa konsep kunci yang tidak diketahui dapat sangat mengganggu
comprehension” (Blachowicz, 1999, p. 215). pemahaman "(Blachowicz, 1999, hal 215). Thus, the more words known by the reader, Dengan demikian, kata-kata lebih dikenal oleh pembaca,
the better their chances to understand and enjoy what they are reading. kemungkinan mereka lebih baik untuk memahami dan menikmati apa yang mereka baca.
Vocabulary knowledge is only one element contributing to the comprehension of Kosakata pengetahuan hanya merupakan salah satu elemen berkontribusi terhadap pemahaman
text necessary for a thorough understanding. memahami teks diperlukan untuk menyeluruh suatu. Comprehension, defined by Janis M. Pemahaman, didefinisikan oleh Janis M.
Harmon (1999) is, “a process in which the reader constructs meaning while or after Harmon (1999) adalah, "sebuah proses di mana pembaca konstruksi makna saat atau setelah
interacting with text through the combination of prior knowledge and previous berinteraksi dengan teks melalui kombinasi pengetahuan sebelumnya dan sebelumnya
experience; information in text; the stance taken in relationship to the text; and pengalaman; informasi dalam teks; sikap yang diambil dalam hubungan dengan teks, dan
immediate, remembered, or anticipated social interactions and communication” (p. 305). segera, ingat, atau diantisipasi sosial interaksi dan komunikasi "(hal. 305).
Comprehension is a complex skill. Pemahaman adalah suatu keterampilan yang kompleks. Often, when students fail to comprehend, it is because Seringkali, ketika siswa gagal untuk memahami, itu karena
of an excess of unfamiliar words. dari kelebihan kata-kata asing. The goal should then be to teach students specific Tujuannya kemudian harus untuk mengajar siswa tertentu
strategies that will eventually enable them to independently tackle unknown words. strategi yang pada akhirnya akan memungkinkan mereka untuk mandiri menangani kata-kata yang tidak diketahui.
Ewers and Brownson's (1999) research on vocabulary acquisition advocates, Ewers dan) Penelitian Brownson's (1999 tentang advokat penguasaan kosa kata,
“Vocabulary knowledge has consistently been found to be a strong predictor of reading "Pengetahuan Kosakata secara konsisten telah ditemukan untuk menjadi prediktor kuat membaca
comprehension” (p. 11). pemahaman "(hal. 11).
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Vocabulary Development 10 10 Pengembangan Kosakata
Blackowicz (1999) states, “When a student fails to show good comprehension, Blackowicz (1999) menyatakan, "Ketika seorang siswa gagal untuk menunjukkan pemahaman yang baik,
and print skills, the problem can sometimes be traced to lack of familiarity with words” dan keterampilan cetak, masalahnya kadang-kadang dapat ditelusuri kurangnya keakraban dengan kata-kata "
(p. 214). (Hal. 214). Initially, teachers should introduce new words one by one, before students Awalnya, guru harus memperkenalkan kata-kata baru satu per satu, sebelum siswa
begin reading a passage. mulai membaca sebuah bagian. But more beneficial than that is equipping students with word Tapi lebih menguntungkan daripada yang melengkapi siswa dengan kata
attack skills so that they are able to decipher meanings of unknown words independent of keterampilan menyerang sehingga mereka mampu menguraikan arti kata-kata yang tidak diketahui independen
a teacher. guru. Graves, Juel & Graves, (1998) state that, “Strategic readers need the ability to Graves, Juel & Graves, (1998) menyatakan bahwa, "pembaca perlu Strategis kemampuan untuk
self-select strategies and derive meaning from texts of various genres.” Strategic readers diri memilih strategi dan makna berasal dari teks-teks dari berbagai genre Strategis. pembaca "
are risk takers who interact with the text and apply decoding strategies to increase adalah pengambil risiko yang berinteraksi dengan teks dan menerapkan strategi untuk meningkatkan decoding
comprehension. pemahaman.
What's in a Word? Apa Firman itu?
To understand the importance of instruction in vocabulary development is to Untuk memahami pentingnya instruksi dalam pengembangan kosa kata adalah
understand the complex function and interaction of words as lexemes. memahami fungsi yang kompleks dan interaksi kata-kata sebagai leksem. A lexeme is the leksem A adalah
abstract unit which underlies some of the variants observed in connection with words unit abstrak yang mendasari beberapa varian diamati dalam hubungannya dengan kata-kata
(Carter, 1997, p. 7). (Carter, 1997, hal 7). For example, fight is the lexeme for the words fought, fighting, Sebagai contoh, melawan adalah leksem untuk kata-kata berjuang, berjuang,
fighter and fights. Each lexeme stands on its own as an individual word although its has tempur dan perkelahian Masing-masing berdiri. leksem sendiri sebagai kata individu walau telah
several different word forms. beberapa bentuk kata yang berbeda. An orthographic definition of a word is “any sequence of Definisi ortografik sebuah kata "setiap urutan
letters bounded on either side by a space or punctuation mark” (Carter, p. 4). huruf dibatasi di kedua sisi dengan tanda spasi atau tanda baca "(Carter, hal 4). Bloomfield Bloomfield
(1933, as cited in Carter, 1997) stresses the stability of a word by the fact, “that it can (1933, seperti dikutip dalam Carter, 1997) menekankan stabilitas dari sebuah kata dengan kenyataan, "bahwa ia dapat
stand on its own as a reply to a question or as a statement of exclamation.” Lexemes also berdiri sendiri sebagai jawaban atas pertanyaan atau sebagai pernyataan seru. "leksem juga
help us understand the polysemy in individual words. membantu kita memahami polisemi dalam kata-kata individu. Polysemy, defined by Carter Polisemi, didefinisikan oleh Carter
(1997) is, “the existence of several meanings in an individual word” (p. 12). (1997) adalah, "adanya beberapa arti dalam sebuah kata individu" (hal. 12). For Untuk
example, the word race can be associated with running a race or with an ethnic group. Misalnya, kata ras dapat dikaitkan dengan menjalankan ras atau dengan kelompok etnis.
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Vocabulary Development 11 11 Pengembangan Kosakata
There are not any specifiable similarities between the words and their meanings as may Tidak ada kesamaan specifiable antara kata-kata dan artinya yang mungkin
first appear depending on one's familiarity with the word. pertama muncul tergantung pada's keakraban satu dengan kata.
Hyponymy offers an organizing principle for vocabulary teaching and learning. Hyponymy menawarkan prinsip yang mengatur untuk pengajaran kosa kata dan belajar.
Hyponymy is “the relationship of inclusion, organizes words into taxonomies, or Hyponymy adalah "hubungan inklusi, mengatur kata menjadi taksonomi, atau
hierarchical tree-type diagrams” (McCarthy, 1990, p. 19). hirarki pohon-jenis diagram "(McCarthy, 1990, hal 19). In the hyponymy relation, Dalam hubungan hyponymy,
mammal would be a hyponym for animal, which is the “superordinate” term. mamalia akan menjadi hyponym untuk hewan, yang merupakan "lebih tinggi" panjang. Other Lainnya
hyponymy relationships for the term animal would be reptile, and amphibian, where hubungan hyponymy untuk jangka hewan akan reptil, dan amfibi, dimana
further taxonomies would be presented for further subdivisions. taksonomi lebih lanjut akan disajikan untuk subdivisi lebih lanjut. This could be used to Ini dapat digunakan untuk
express the relationships between seasons, transportation, clothes or body parts. menyatakan hubungan antara musim, transportasi, pakaian atau bagian tubuh.
Two other important concepts related to words are morpheme and collocation. Dua konsep penting lain yang berkaitan dengan kata-kata morfem dan kolokasi. A A
morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word. morfem adalah unit terkecil dari makna dalam kata. Each morpheme in a word Setiap morfem dalam kata
comprises its own meaning. terdiri dari artinya sendiri. The word laughed is made up of two morphemes-- laugh Kata tertawa terdiri dari dua morfem - tertawa
and - ed. Adding - ed to the word laugh changes its meaning and tense. dan - ed -. Menambahkan ed dengan tertawa perubahan makna kata dan tegang. Therefore, a word Oleh karena itu, kata
must consist of at least one potentially freestanding morpheme. harus terdiri dari setidaknya satu berpotensi berdiri bebas morfem. Collocation is a term Kolokasi adalah istilah
used to describe a group of words, which occur repeatedly in a language. digunakan untuk menggambarkan kelompok kata, yang terjadi berulang-ulang dalam suatu bahasa. Michael Michael
McCarthy (1990) states, “The relationship of collocation is fundamental in the study of McCarthy (1990) menyatakan, "hubungan kolokasi adalah The fundamental dalam studi
vocabulary; it is a marriage contract between words, and some words are more firmly kosa kata, yang merupakan kontrak pernikahan antara kata-kata, dan beberapa kata lebih tegas
married to each other than others” (p.12). menikah satu sama lain daripada yang lain "(p.12). Knowledge of collocation is knowledge of Pengetahuan tentang kolokasi adalah pengetahuan
what words are most likely to occur together. kata-kata apa yang paling mungkin terjadi bersama-sama. For instance, beige collocates with car but Misalnya, krem collocates dengan mobil tapi
not with hair; just as blond collocates with hair but not with car. bukan dengan rambut; sama seperti collocates pirang dengan rambut, tetapi tidak dengan mobil. Knowledge of Pengetahuan tentang
collocational appropriacy is part of vocabulary competence and fluency. appropriacy collocational adalah bagian dari kompetensi kosa kata dan kefasihan.
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Vocabulary Development 12 12 Pengembangan Kosakata
Levels of Word Knowledge Tingkat Pengetahuan Word
ISP Nation (1990) defines productive knowledge of a word to be, “Knowing ISP Nation (1990) mendefinisikan pengetahuan produktif dari kata yang akan, "Mengetahui
how to pronounce the word, how to write and spell it, how to use it in correct cara mengucapkan kata, bagaimana menulis dan mengejanya, bagaimana menggunakannya dalam benar
grammatical patterns along with the words it collocates with” (p. 32). tata bahasa pola bersama dengan kata-kata itu collocates dengan "(hal. 32). Similarly, Ryder Demikian pula, Ryder
and Graves (1994) discuss three levels of words students know (and learn): unknown dan Graves (1994) membahas tiga tingkat kata siswa tahu (dan belajar): tidak diketahui
words, words with which students are acquainted, and words whose meaning is firmly kata-kata, kata-kata dengan para siswa yang berkenalan, dan kata-kata yang maknanya secara tegas
established. didirikan. Unknown words are those that are completely alien to the student. Unknown kata adalah mereka yang benar-benar asing bagi mahasiswa.
Acquaintance words are those with which the student is familiar. kata Kenalan adalah mereka dengan yang mahasiswa akrab. Although they may Meskipun mereka mungkin
have seen the word before, they are unable to transfer it over into other contexts and uses. telah melihat kata sebelumnya, mereka tidak dapat mentransfer di atas ke dalam konteks yang lain dan menggunakan.
Firmly grounded words are ones that the student recognizes, are part of their oral Tegas kata membumi adalah orang yang siswa mengakui, adalah bagian dari lisan mereka
vocabulary, and are known in such depth that they can use them in a variety of contexts kosa kata, dan dikenal secara mendalam sehingga mereka dapat menggunakannya dalam berbagai konteks
and associate them with a range of experiences (Calfee & Drum, 1986). dan mengasosiasikan mereka dengan berbagai pengalaman (Calfee & Drum, 1986). Consequently, Akibatnya,
knowing a word in the fullest sense goes beyond simply being able to define it or get the mengetahui sebuah kata dalam arti sepenuhnya melampaui hanya mampu mendefinisikan atau mendapatkan
gist of it from context. Inti dari konteks. Rather active processing and vocabulary growth comes from Sebaliknya pengolahan aktif dan pertumbuhan kosa kata berasal dari
students elaborating on words and demonstrating meaning in varied contexts of use. siswa menguraikan kata-kata dan mendemonstrasikan makna dalam konteks penggunaan bervariasi.
Presumably, knowing a word involves knowing the different meanings carried by the Agaknya, mengetahui kata melibatkan mengetahui arti yang berbeda dilakukan oleh
same form. bentuk yang sama. According to Dale and O'Rourke, (1971, as cited in Gunning, 1996) students Menurut Dale dan O'Rourke, (1971, seperti dikutip dalam Gunning, 1996) siswa
who encounter new words in text will say to themselves: I never saw it before, I have yang mengalami kata-kata baru dalam teks akan katakan kepada diri sendiri: aku tidak pernah melihatnya sebelumnya, saya telah
heard of it, but don't know what it means, I recognize it in text—it has something to do mendengarnya, tetapi tidak tahu apa artinya, aku mengenalinya dalam teks-itu memiliki sesuatu untuk dilakukan
with . dengan. . . . . or I know it. atau saya tahu itu. This shows that even when a student recognizes an unfamiliar Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa bahkan ketika seorang siswa mengenali asing
word, there are different degrees of knowledge. kata, ada derajat pengetahuan yang berbeda. After students are able to read and sound Setelah siswa mampu membaca dan suara
out unfamiliar words, they should learn the word's meaning through rich, contextualized kata-kata asing, mereka harus belajar makna kata melalui kaya, dikontekstualisasikan
and generative activities. dan generatif kegiatan.
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Vocabulary Development 13 13 Pengembangan Kosakata
In order for students to truly acquire and remember new words that will become Dalam rangka bagi siswa untuk benar-benar memperoleh dan mengingat kata-kata baru yang akan menjadi
part of their oral and written vocabulary, they must have multiple exposures to the new bagian dari lisan dan tertulis kosakata mereka, mereka harus memiliki eksposur ganda untuk yang baru
words in assorted contexts. kata-kata dalam berbagai konteks. Beck, McKeown, and Omanson (1987) suggest that students Beck, McKeown, dan Omanson (1987) menunjukkan bahwa siswa
meet new words at least ten times; however, Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) found that as bertemu kata-kata baru di sedikitnya sepuluh kali, namun, Stahl dan Fairbanks (1986) menemukan bahwa
little as two exposures were effective. sedikit sebagai dua eksposur yang efektif. The underlying factor in the effectiveness of Faktor yang mendasari dalam efektivitas
multiple exposures to new words seems to rely on the fact that students encounter these eksposur berganda untuk kata-kata baru tampaknya bergantung pada kenyataan bahwa siswa perjumpaan ini
new words in a variety of different meaningful contexts. kata-kata baru dalam berbagai konteks yang berbeda bermakna. Polysemy, the existence of Polisemi, keberadaan
several meanings of a word, can produce meanings, which are close or distant. beberapa arti dari sebuah kata, dapat menghasilkan makna, yang dekat atau jauh. This can Hal ini dapat
be semantically problematic for students when a word they have learned is presented in akan semantis bermasalah bagi siswa ketika sebuah kata yang mereka pelajari adalah disajikan dalam
only one form. hanya satu bentuk. Multiple exposures to the word in different contexts would allow students Beberapa eksposur ke kata dalam konteks yang berbeda akan memungkinkan siswa
to discern which definition was being applied. untuk melihat definisi yang sedang diterapkan.
J. Richards in The Role of Vocabulary Teaching underscores six language J. Richards dalam Peran Pengajaran Kosakata menggarisbawahi enam bahasa
universals, which show to what extent knowledge of a word exists. universal, yang menunjukkan sejauh mana pengetahuan dari sebuah kata ada. The first is Yang pertama adalah
knowledge of the frequency of the word in the language. pengetahuan tentang frekuensi dari kata dalam bahasa itu. This principle states that to Prinsip ini menyatakan bahwa untuk
really know a word is to know the probability of encountering that word in print. benar-benar tahu sebuah kata adalah untuk mengetahui kemungkinan menghadapi bahwa kata dalam cetak. Some Beberapa
lexical words are more frequently used in speech than in writing and teachers should be kata leksikal lebih sering digunakan dalam pidato daripada secara tertulis dan guru harus
aware of this when determining student's word knowledge. menyadari hal ini ketika menentukan kata pengetahuan itulah siswa. The second principle is the Prinsip kedua adalah
knowledge of the register of words. pengetahuan tentang daftar kata-kata. This means that students know the limitations of Ini berarti bahwa siswa tahu keterbatasan
usage on words. Penggunaan kata-kata. Knowing the register of a word means understanding colloquial English Mengetahui register dari sebuah kata berarti memahami bahasa Inggris sehari-hari
usage of words verses slang usage. penggunaan kata-kata ayat-ayat slang penggunaan. Third, knowledge of collocation is having an Ketiga, pengetahuan tentang metode kolokasi adalah memiliki
awareness of syntactic behavior associated with the word and conjoining words. kesadaran perilaku sintaksis yang berhubungan dengan kata dan kata-kata conjoining. A fourth Sebuah keempat
rule is that students who truly know a word, understand its morphology, meaning that aturan adalah bahwa siswa yang benar-benar tahu kata, memahami morfologi, yang berarti bahwa
they understand the underlying form of a word and the related derivations that are formed mereka memahami bentuk dasar dari sebuah kata dan derivasi terkait yang dibentuk
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Vocabulary Development 14 14 Pengembangan Kosakata
from the base word. dari kata dasar. Fifth, there is an understanding of semantics where one understands Kelima, ada pemahaman semantik dimana satu mengerti
what the word denotes as well as words that are analogous, opposite, and similar in apa kata menunjukan serta kata-kata yang analog, berlawanan, dan serupa di
connotation. konotasi. Last is the knowledge of polysemy, which simply means understanding the Terakhir adalah pengetahuan tentang polisemi, yang berarti memahami
many different meanings associated with a word. berbagai makna yang terkait dengan kata.
Word Selection Firman Seleksi
There are systematic rules and guidelines for choosing words for vocabulary Ada aturan yang sistematis dan pedoman untuk memilih kata-kata untuk kosa kata
instruction. instruksi. Time is often a constraint with the day; therefore, there are benefits for Waktu adalah sering menjadi kendala dengan hari, sehingga ada manfaat untuk
incorporating vocabulary development strategies within content instruction. menggabungkan strategi pengembangan kosa kata dalam instruksi konten. In order for Agar
words to be truly learned, that is, committed to long-term memory, they must be kata-kata untuk benar-benar dipelajari, yaitu, berkomitmen untuk memori jangka panjang, mereka harus
reinforced in meaningful ways. diperkuat dengan cara yang bermakna. The rote memorization of words and dictionary Para menghafal hafalan kata-kata dan kamus
definitions will certainly not lead to the retention of words to be used in a student’s definisi pasti tidak akan mengarah pada retensi kata-kata yang akan digunakan dalam siswa
functioning spoken and written vocabulary. berfungsi lisan dan tulisan kosa kata. When choosing words, select words based Ketika memilih kata-kata, kata pilih berdasarkan
on content, students, and time (Misulis, 1999, p. 26). pada konten, mahasiswa, dan waktu (Misulis, 1999, hal 26). Words that are selected should be Kata-kata yang dipilih harus
important to developing an understanding of related content in other subject areas. penting untuk mengembangkan pemahaman konten terkait di bidang studi lain.
“There is a direct association between the knowledge of word meanings and "Ada hubungan langsung antara pengetahuan tentang arti kata dan
understanding of what is to be learned” (Misulis, p. 25). pemahaman tentang apa yang harus dipelajari "(Misulis, hal 25). This will make the meanings of Ini akan membuat makna
words relevant to the context in which they appear as well as help to build connections sambungan kata yang relevan dengan konteks di mana mereka muncul juga membantu membangun
between existing vocabulary and new vocabulary. antara ada dan baru kosa kata kosa kata. Students will then encounter new Siswa maka akan menghadapi baru
words in a confirmatory and relevant manner rather than as an unknown word in an kata dalam dan relevan dengan cara konfirmasi bukan sebagai kata yang tidak dikenal dalam
irrelevant piece of text. relevan sepotong teks.
Throughout content instruction it is important to continue to help students make Sepanjang instruksi konten penting untuk terus membantu siswa membuat
associations between the vocabulary words they are learning and their prior knowledge. asosiasi antara kata-kata kosakata yang mereka pelajari dan pengetahuan mereka sebelumnya.
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Vocabulary Development 15 15 Pengembangan Kosakata
When selecting words, account for student's prior knowledge and connection with words. Ketika kata-kata memilih, akun untuk sebelum pengetahuan itulah siswa dan hubungan dengan kata-kata.
This will undoubtedly construct relevancy between the learner and the content Ini pasti akan membangun relevansi antara pelajar dan konten
vocabulary. kosakata. “It is essential to relate new words to experiences that students may have "Sangat penting untuk berhubungan kata-kata baru dengan pengalaman bahwa siswa dapat memiliki
had” (Gunning, 1996, p.166). telah "(Gunning, 1996, hal.166). Teachers should predict or observe their students to Guru harus memprediksi atau mengamati siswa mereka untuk
discern which words may espouse relevancy. melihat kata-kata yang mungkin mendukung relevansi. Helping students make connections and Membantu siswa membuat hubungan dan
associations between what they are learning and their prior knowledge will enhance their asosiasi antara apa yang mereka pelajari dan pengetahuan mereka sebelumnya mereka akan meningkatkan
retention of what is learned. retensi dari apa yang dipelajari. Therefore, a selection of words should be based upon the Oleh karena itu, pemilihan kata harus didasarkan pada
premise that they will build on student's previous knowledge while contributing to their premis bahwa mereka akan membangun pengetahuan itulah siswa sebelumnya dengan kontribusi mereka
understanding of the new content being read. pemahaman tentang konten baru sedang dibaca. “Given the content to be learned, the nature "Mengingat isi yang akan dipelajari, alam
of the learners themselves, and the anticipated time for a unit of study, the teacher makes dari peserta didik sendiri, dan waktu diantisipasi untuk unit studi, guru membuat
decisions related to what is deemed a reasonable number of words for instruction” keputusan terkait dengan apa yang dianggap nomor yang masuk akal kata-kata untuk instruksi "
(Misulis, 1999, p. 26). (Misulis, 1999, hal 26). Also, include what students already know, that is, their prior Juga, termasuk apa yang siswa sudah tahu, yaitu, sebelum mereka
knowledge, when initiating and implementing vocabulary development. pengetahuan, saat memulai dan melaksanakan pembangunan kosa kata. After informally Setelah informal
assessing prior knowledge, a teacher can provide students with synonyms, antonyms, menilai pengetahuan sebelumnya, guru bisa memberikan para siswa dengan sinonim, antonim,
analogies, homophones, and homonyms of the words they already know. analogi, homofon, dan homonyms kata-kata yang mereka sudah tahu. Students Siswa
should be able to make associations among vocabulary words. harus dapat membuat asosiasi antara kosakata. Having students Memiliki siswa
brainstorm, categorize, organize, or analyze can help students understand the meanings of brainstorming, mengkategorikan, mengatur, atau menganalisis dapat membantu siswa memahami makna
words in relation to other words and the symbiotic relationships among words. kata dalam hubungannya dengan kata lain dan hubungan simbiosis antar kata. This Ini
might involve initiating brief discussions of the words and their meanings before mungkin melibatkan memprakarsai diskusi singkat mengenai kata-kata dan makna mereka sebelum
pertinent upcoming lessons. bersangkutan pelajaran mendatang.
Another important theme in selecting words for study, is to choose words related Tema penting lain dalam memilih kata-kata untuk studi, adalah memilih kata-kata yang terkait
to students content areas. untuk konten daerah siswa. John Laflamme (1997) suggests “vocabulary instruction must John Laflamme (1997) menyarankan "instruksi kosakata harus
be formalized, structured, and related in a meaningful way to the content that students are diformalkan, terstruktur, dan terkait dengan cara yang berarti untuk konten yang siswa
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Vocabulary Development 16 16 Pengembangan Kosakata
learning” (p. 378). belajar "(hal. 378). There is nothing inherently inappropriate about giving students a list Tidak ada dasarnya tidak tepat tentang memberi siswa daftar
of vocabulary words. kata-kata kosa kata. They can practice their spelling, dictionary skills, and penmanship. Mereka bisa berlatih ejaan mereka, kamus keterampilan, dan tulisan tangan.
However, there is a tendency for students to merely memorize words, definitions, and Namun, ada kecenderungan bagi siswa untuk menghafal hanya kata-kata, definisi, dan
sentences for a test. kalimat untuk sebuah tes. On the other hand, for words to truly be learned they must be Di sisi lain, kata-kata untuk benar-benar harus dipelajari mereka harus
reinforced in meaningful ways. diperkuat dengan cara yang bermakna. One way that this can be done is to assist students in Salah satu cara yang bisa dilakukan ini adalah untuk membantu siswa dalam
understanding the vocabulary related to their content areas. memahami kosakata yang berhubungan dengan bidang konten mereka. “Vocabulary words should be "Kata-kata harus Kosakata
selected that reflect students' learning needs in light of the content to be studied” dipilih yang mencerminkan 'kebutuhan belajar siswa dalam terang isi yang akan dipelajari "
(Misulis, 1999, p. 26). (Misulis, 1999, hal 26). This is important in helping students come to a greater Hal ini penting dalam membantu siswa datang ke yang lebih besar
understanding and retention of the words that contribute to content learning in all subject pemahaman dan retensi kata-kata yang berkontribusi terhadap konten pembelajaran di semua mata pelajaran
areas. daerah.
Leu & Kinzer (1999) suggest three categories of words that should be taught in Leu & Kinzer (1999) menyarankan tiga kategori kata-kata yang harus diajarkan di
vocabulary instruction- function words, content words and content-specific words. kosakata instruksi-fungsi kata, kata isi dan kata-kata khusus konten.
Function words are the “glue” words of a sentence, meaning that they are often articles Fungsi kata adalah "lem" kata kalimat, yang berarti bahwa mereka sering artikel
(a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, or), prepositions (at, into, over); and auxiliary verbs (A, suatu, para), konjungsi (dan, tetapi, atau), preposisi (di, ke, di atas), dan kata kerja bantu
(could run, had snowed) (p. 335). (Bisa berlari, salju turun) (hal. 335). If function words “are taught out of context, they can Jika kata fungsi "diajarkan di luar konteks, mereka bisa
be difficult for young children to conceptualize because the concepts they represent are sulit bagi anak-anak muda untuk konsep karena konsep yang mereka wakili adalah
not concrete” (Leu & Kinzer, p. 335). tidak konkret "(Leu & Kinzer, hal 335). Like other researchers, Leu and Kinzer advocate Seperti peneliti lain, Leu dan Kinzer advokat
teaching content words such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in context. kata ajaran konten seperti kata benda, kata ganti, kata kerja, kata sifat dan kata keterangan dalam konteks.
Context will help clarify meaning and usage to all key content words, which for the most Konteks akan membantu memperjelas makna dan penggunaan konten untuk semua kata kunci, yang bagi sebagian besar
part, have concrete meanings. bagian, memiliki arti beton. Last are content-specific words. Terakhir adalah kata khusus konten. Content-specific words Content-kata khusus
“always have specialized meanings within a particular subject area and must be learned "Selalu memiliki arti khusus dalam area subyek tertentu dan harus dipelajari
within the context of that area” (Leu & Kinzer, p. 337). dalam konteks yang luas "(Leu & Kinzer, hal 337). For example, the words Sebagai contoh, kata-kata
amendment, succession, and ratification all are content-specific to history—and should amandemen, suksesi, dan ratifikasi semua konten-khusus untuk sejarah dan harus
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Vocabulary Development 17 17 Pengembangan Kosakata
be taught in context because of the probability of encountering these words in their diajarkan dalam konteks karena kemungkinan menghadapi kata-kata dalam mereka
history text. teks sejarah.
Barr and Johnson (1997) suggest several ideas for continually developing Barr dan Johnson (1997) menyarankan beberapa ide untuk terus mengembangkan
vocabulary. kosakata. They have shown “that students' self-selection of words is an important Mereka telah menunjukkan "bahwa 'diri siswa-pemilihan kata adalah penting
factor in vocabulary development” (p. 129). faktor dalam pengembangan kosa kata "(hal. 129). Student interest and curiosity in words can Mahasiswa bunga dan keingintahuan dalam kata-kata dapat
significantly contribute to word development. signifikan memberikan kontribusi terhadap pembangunan kata. They are more prone to discuss and Mereka lebih rentan untuk membahas dan
develop interest in new words they have heard or seen before. mengembangkan minat dalam kata-kata baru yang mereka dengar atau lihat sebelumnya. They also suggest creating Mereka juga menyarankan menciptakan
direct experiences to learn new words. pengalaman langsung untuk mempelajari kata-kata baru. “Young children learn best if they can experience "Anak-anak belajar paling baik jika mereka bisa mengalami
the meaning of a word” (p.130). arti kata "(p.130). Learning or reading about kites is not as effective as Belajar atau membaca tentang layang-layang ini tidak seefektif
bringing a kite into the classroom for students to see and feel. membawa layang-layang ke dalam kelas bagi siswa untuk melihat dan merasakan. Just as flying the kite Sama seperti terbang layang-layang
would be the most effective direct experience students could have with the word. akan menjadi pengalaman langsung siswa paling efektif bisa dengan kata. It Ini
would be more probable that students would remember and be able to use kite in context, akan lebih besar kemungkinan bahwa siswa akan mengingat dan dapat menggunakan layang-layang dalam konteks,
after having had an encounter with one. setelah telah bertemu dengan satu. Employing concrete experiences can be time- Mempekerjakan pengalaman beton dapat waktu
consuming and costly but will increase word learning. mengkonsumsi dan mahal tetapi akan meningkatkan kata belajar.
White, Sowell, and Yanagihara (1989, as cited in Cunningham, 1998) analyzed Putih, Sowell, dan Yanagihara (1989, seperti dikutip dalam Cunningham, 1998) dianalisis
the words in the Carroll et al. kata dalam Carroll et al. (1971) and found that 20 prefixes accounted for 97% of the (1971) dan menemukan bahwa 20 prefiks menyumbang 97% dari
prefixed words. diawali kata-kata. Prefixes are chunks at the front of words that have predictable Prefiks adalah potongan di depan kata yang telah diprediksi
pronunciations and spellings. pengucapan dan ejaan. Therefore, due to the frequency of these prefixes, teaching Oleh karena itu, karena frekuensi ini prefiks, mengajar
them and their word parts would seem advantageous to student's vocabulary mereka dan bagian-bagian kata mereka akan tampak menguntungkan untuk siswa kosa kata
development. pembangunan. According to the study, four prefixes— un-, re-, in- (and im-, ir-, il- ) and Menurut penelitian, empat prefiks-un-, ulang, di-(dan im-, ir-, il-) dan
dis —accounted for 58% of all prefixed words. dis-menyumbang 58% dari semua kata diawali. The prefixes accounting for the other Akuntansi prefiks untuk lainnya
39% of the words were: en-, em-, non-, in-, im-, over-, mis-, sub-, pre-, inter-, fore-, de-, 39% dari kata-kata itu: en-, em-, non-, di-, im-, lebih-, salah-, sub-, pra-, antar-, depan-, de-,
trans-, super-, semi-, anti-, mid-, and under-. Suffix instruction was taught so that
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Vocabulary Development 18
students could understand how they often change the word from a verb form to a noun
form—as seen with the change of frustrated to frustration. Teaching the suffixes -ly, -er, -
or, -ion, -tion, -ible, -able, -al, -y, -ness, -ity, and -ment account for 87% of the suffixed
words. kata-kata. While, the suffixes, -s, -es, -ed , and - ing account for 65% of the suffixed words.
The remaining suffixes, -ic, -ous, -en, -ive, -ful, and -less account for less than 1% of the
suffixed words. This information is important because students will undoubtedly profit
from explicit instruction with the most common prefixes and suffixes. White, et al.
(1998) estimated that “the average third grader would encounter 230 words, the meaning
of which would be obvious if the base word and the four most common prefixes and
suffixes were known” (pp.193-194).
A Look at Vocabulary Studies
Numerous studies have been executed in order to collect and analyze data
pertinent to the implications of formalized vocabulary instruction. We will look at two
studies, each of which found substantial information specific to the vocabulary domain.
The first study recorded by Dole, Sloan, and Trathen is entitled “Teaching Vocabulary
within the Context of Literature” and is found in the March 1995 Journal of Reading.
The second study is recorded in Janis Harmon's “Initial Encounters with Unfamiliar
Words in Independent Reading” found in the February 1999 issue of Research in the
Teaching of English.
Vocabulary Study #1
This study was conducted with 43 tenth-grade students in a private school in the
United States. Amerika Serikat. The English class was an elective course called Action and Adventure.
The goal of the study “was to develop an alternative instructional unit that would provide
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Vocabulary Development 19
students with this procedural and conditional knowledge about words” (Dole, Sloan, &
Trathen, 1995, p. 454). The teacher, Chris, taught the alternative unit to one class of
students and the traditional unit to another class. Before the unit, Chris administered a
pre-test Important Words Test, where students were asked to read a selection and then
choose words they felt were important to the overall story plot. The pre-test showed that
48% of the words students chose were words that were unfamiliar to them. Sixty-six
percent of the students cited that they chose a certain word because they did not know
what it meant, 20% chose a word because it described characters, 16% chose a word
because it described the plot or story action, 9% stated “the book picked them,” and 7%
chose a word that described something. These percentages clearly reveal that the
students were not aware of which words were key for either building or obstructing
comprehension of the passage. Word selection is an important component to vocabulary
instruction, not only for students, but for teachers as well. Teachers should model their
thinking patterns about how and why they choose certain words for instruction. In phase
one of his research, Chris began to do this, each morning for four weeks he listed a group
of important words from the passage on the board and shared with the class why he had
chosen those words. He then asked students to practice choosing words based on the
following criteria: the word must be a word they did not know, it must be used in the
selection, and must describe a key character, event or idea.
Phase two meant that students were to gradually become less dependent on Chris'
input when selecting words. They also were to be able to justify the reasons why they
selected those words. For the following weeks Chris integrated his vocabulary
instruction into the discussion of the reading selection and had the students read each
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Vocabulary Development 20
word out loud in context along with its definition. Chris would then initiate a discussion
on how those words did or did not directly fit into the story's main plot, character or idea.
In phase three of Chris' instruction “students developed independence in using their new
strategies for selecting important words” (p. 456).
Both at the beginning and the end of the unit, the students were given a
vocabulary test. The pre-test for both classes revealed that 11% of the 20 words were
identified as “established” words, words that were important to the overall theme of the
text. teks. The post-test revealed that the alternative group chose 60% of the words as
“established,” while the traditional group identified only 39% of the words of the words
as established. “At the end of the instructional period, students in the alternative group
were more confident in their knowledge of the important vocabulary words than were
students in the traditional group” (p. 457). In summary, there were three important
features of Chris' vocabulary instruction which were pertinent to the student's success.
The first was that Chris provided specific criteria before asking students to choose
important words. Second, Chris made sure that his students learned the contextual
meanings of each word. And last, he provided extensive practice to students with the
important words.
Vocabulary Study #2
The second case study takes place in a seventh grade literature based reading
classroom in the United States. This study reports detailed descriptions of “what two
proficient middle-school readers did during initial encounters with self-selected,
unknown words in independent reading” (Harmon, 1999, p. 304). The way in which the Cara yang
data was collected was scrupulous note taking on verbal strategies expressed by the
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Vocabulary Development 21
students at the time of engagement with the new word. The students read a passage aloud
and upon encountering an unknown word, the students would verbalize their thoughts as
they worked to determine meaning. It was concluded that both students “drew upon test-
based references, content connections, word-level analysis, dictionary use, and their
knowledge of syntax to generate definitions” (p. 318). Being that the two participants
were strong readers, indicates that their strengths were derived from the fact that they
used a wide variety of skills to determine meaning of unknown words.
Conclusions revealed that both readers drew upon knowledge outside of the text.
Both students used a variety of methods, and both students verbally indicated that they
played with the pronunciation of the unknown word, referred to the local text for clues,
extended the word to a context they had heard or seen it in before, and finally referred
back to the local test before predicting a definition. Although the conclusions they drew
about each unknown word were not always accurate “word meanings did not grossly
interfere with comprehension” (p. 334). Overall, the research showed that proficient
readers use a variety to strategies to decipher meaning of unknown words and that these
two readers' encounters “proved to be fruitful endeavors in generating plausible word
meanings . . . .” (p. 334).
Direct Instructional Strategies
Each encounter with an unfamiliar word in reading represents an opportunity for
learners to expand their vocabulary knowledge while actively constructing meaning of
the text as a whole. Most students need to be taught the strategies that strong and capable
readers already implement. Teachers can increase motivation by helping students
appreciate “the purposes of strategies to help them understand why they should
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Vocabulary Development 22
implement vocabulary strategies when they are experiencing difficulties making meaning
of words” (Roberts, 1999, p. 68). Additional shared research emphasizes the importance
of teaching students to use their cognitive skills to enhance learning. There are several Ada beberapa
direct strategic skills that students can learn to use effectively: contextual analysis,
semantical analysis, structural analysis, and other less formal strategies such as
definitional approaches. First, there will be an examination of specific strategies
learner's use for inferring words in context.
Contextual Analysis
In contextual analysis, “a reader uses the words in a sentence surrounding an
unknown word to figure out the unknown word's meaning” (Carnine, Silbert, &
Kameenui, 1990, p. 285). 285). Contextual clues include syntactical analysis where students
use their knowledge of sentence structure to figure out meaning of an unknown word.
The literature supported using syntactical principles upon encountering an unknown word
in its context. Contextual analysis is an important skill and strategy essential for students,
because it allows them to determine the meaning of many unknown words they will
encounter. pertemuan. Research suggests that “students whose vocabularies are most in need of being
increased are least likely to be able to get information from context” (Goerss, Beck, &
McKeown, 1999, p. 153). 153). Although context clues can be fairly obvious, “students may
fail to take advantage of them” (Gunning, 1996, p. 146). Nagy, Anderson and Herman
(1987, as cited in Gunning, 1996) “estimated that the average reader is able to use context
successfully only between 5 and 20 percent of the time” (p. 146). However, ISP Nation
(1990) states that “once learners know around two or three thousand words, they can use
the reading skills they have developed to infer the meanings of unknown words that they
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Vocabulary Development 23
meet” (p. 60). Through instruction and practice, children can and will become more
proficient at evaluating word meaning from context.
ISP Nation (1990) conducted a few studies analyzing how students guess words
from context. “There is no question that learning from context is an important avenue of
vocabulary growth and that it deserves attention and practice in the classroom” (Nagy,
1988-89, p. 7). 7). Their studies indicated that a large proportion of unknown words (at least
80 percent) can be successfully dealt with using the following strategy. Teachers begin
instruction by having students look closely at the unknown word, next they look at its
immediate context, and then take a much broader view of how the clause containing the
word relates to others clauses, sentences or paragraphs. Sternberg and Powell (1983, as
cited in Gunning, 1996) postulate a three-step process whereby students use context to
determine meaning. First is selective encoding where students gather information from
the sentence that will help them construct meaning for the unfamiliar word. The second Yang kedua
step is selective combination . Here students combine relevant clues into a tentative
definition. Definisi. Last is selective comparison where students use their past experience to help
determine meaning for substitution. Carnine, Silbert, and Kameenui (1990), suggest
strategies similar to the ones above. They identify three steps where the student identifies
the unknown word, finds words in surrounding context that help reveal meaning, and
finally students restate the sentence using a substitution word. After guided practice with
these strategies, students will begin independent practice with unknown words.
Context teaches beyond a word's dictionary definition, it also teaches students the
correct usage and meaning of the word in a sentence. Some contexts give the reader
more concise definitions than others. Research by Goodman (1965, as cited in Carnine,
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Vocabulary Development 24
Silbert, & Kameeuni) found that “students correctly identified more words [meanings]
when they were presented in context rather than in isolation” (p. 52.). Contextual clues
include different parts of the sentence, surrounding sentences, or paragraph to discern
meaning. makna. Gunning (1996) underscores several types of context clues students can look
for in sentences. The first is explicit explanation or definition , where the unknown word
is directly defined in the sentence preceding or following the word. Second are
appositives. Appositives restate or redefine the unfamiliar word. Synonyms and
examples are two other ways to infer meaning from context. Three other ways to use
context are by using clues such as comparison and contrast , classification , and
experience. Last are function indicators , where context provides clues to meaning by
elaborating on the words' function, purpose or use. Contextual analysis can be employed
in the classroom through several direct and structured activities.
Syntactical analysis, a component of contextual analysis, serves to strengthen
students word attack skills through an understanding of language. Syntax, as defined by
Webster's Dictionary (1997) is “the way in which words are put together to form phrases,
clauses or sentences” (p. 734). The way in which words are put together can serve as an
important tool for deciphering unknown words because although at first glance the
learner might not recognize the word, one's knowledge of sentence structure can help
determine the meaning. Rupley, Logan, and Nichols (1998/99) provide a vivid
description of the importance of syntax in vocabulary development. “Randy became very
nervous as the doctor's assistant approached him with the sphygmomanometer” (p. 337).
The context offers to some degree the setting of the event; however, none of the context
clues are helpful in inferring the meaning of the unknown word. “When context is not
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Vocabulary Development 25
enough to derive meaning from an unknown word, skilled readers use their language
knowledge to help them infer meaning (Rupley, Logan & Nichols, 1998/98, p. 336). An Sebuah
understanding of syntax enables the reader to discern that the “sphygmomanometer” is a
noun, a thing. Only an understanding of syntax would allow the reader to determine its
part of speech. In the sentence, she placed the ____ on the table, an understanding of
syntax would reveal that the object is a noun. Neither a verb, adjective, pronoun, or
adverb could accurately fit into the space; however, only an understanding of syntax can
provide the prior schema necessary for completion. “Most studies found syntactic factors
to be highly related to reading comprehension, second only to those of vocabulary”
(Chall, 1983, p. 198).
Ideas for the Classroom
There are several ways of developing and maintaining vocabulary support in class
throughout the day. Activities should be worthwhile and should emphasize pupils'
interest and background. Research indicates that students need multiple exposures to
new words. kata-kata baru. Barr and Johnson (1997) suggest thirteen or more exposures to learn new
vocabulary (p. 129). Thus, new words should be developed before, during and after the
reading of text. One effective way to have children demonstrate their reading
comprehension using vocabulary from text is to have students construct an outline of
important concepts from the text. When constructing outlines, students should be taught
the idea of main concepts and subordinate ideas that relate directly to one another.
Another idea for application within the classroom is to preface each reading assignment
by asking the students to look and select words they want to know more about. Maryann
Manning (1999) suggests having students acts as etymologists. Students select a word
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Vocabulary Development 26
they would like to know more about, propose the origin and meaning(s) based on Greek
and Latin roots, and give examples of the word in context. Students then vote on correct
definitions of the word. After review of correct definitions, students record words in a
personal dictionary.
Literature. Sastra.
“Without teacher attention and instruction to terminology, students'
comprehension will necessarily suffer. For this reason, considerable attention to
vocabulary development is basic to effective instruction in the content areas” (Dishner,
Bean, & Readence, 1981, p. 137). Teaching vocabulary within the context of literature is
a beneficial classroom activity that is tantamount to comprehension. Dole, Sloan, and
Trathen (1995) conducted a study within a tenth grade classroom. The students were Para siswa
reading, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty . The teacher asked the students to use three
criteria for selecting important words from the upcoming chapter in the book: the word
must not be established in their vocabulary, the word must be one that is used in the
selection, and the word must accurately describe a key character, place, theme or event.
The students were asked to underline and predict the meanings of these words in the text
as they read. They were also instructed to look up the words in the dictionary and then
select the definition appropriate to the context. The following day, the vocabulary words
that the students had chosen were discussed and integrated into instruction. Through Melalui
scaffolding and guided practice students were able to independently use the strategy for
selection of key words which may obstruct comprehension.
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Vocabulary Development 27
Possible sentences.
Moore and Arthur (1981, as cited in Dishner, Bean & Readence, 1981) suggest
using a method called Possible Sentences, which enables readers to independently
determine meanings and relationships of unfamiliar words in content reading. In the first Dalam pertama
step of Possible Sentences the teacher lists key terms of a passage that are defined by
surrounding sentences. The new vocabulary words, in their sentences, are presented to
the class, and written on the chalkboard. In step two the students pair two words in the
list, and write possible sentences for each word as it is connected to the other. Step three Langkah tiga
entails having students read the passage checking for appropriate usage of the target
vocabulary words. kosa kata. Last, students evaluate definitions, and eventually modify and
produce original sentences using the words fittingly. Moore and Arthur (1981, as cited in
Cunningham, 1981) state some key components related to the implementation of the
Possible Sentences strategy. When students are choosing target words they, “must
comprise key vocabulary with clear defining context.” Also, the credibility of each
students' sentence “suggests that students conceptual backgrounds be appropriate for the
passage, and that the accuracy of the students' final sentences provides evidence that the
meaning and the relationships of the words were identified correctly” (p. 140 ). Possible Mungkin
Sentences is a strategy that juxtaposes vocabulary development with comprehension in
content passages.
Context strategy.
Joan Gipe (1980, as cited in Barr & Johnson, 1997) created a strategy called
Context Strategy , where students use context clues in applying word meaning to
unknown words. Context Strategy “encourages students to integrate information across
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Vocabulary Development 28
sentences and at the same time incorporates the definition of the target word” (p. 116).
This strategy requires that the teacher choose target words from a selected passage and
then generate four sentences ranging from the most obscure usage to the most precise.
Gipe suggests that initially teachers use a sentence directly from the passage so that
concepts can “be used to further link vocabulary learning to text comprehension” (p.
118). After reviewing the four sentences students are asked to predict a definition for the
word. kata. This strategy is time consuming, as a substantial amount of time is spent on each
new word; however, the multiple exposures, the student involvement and the words taken
directly from text are cornerstones for building vocabulary development and retention.
Knowledge-Rating.
Another strategy ripe for establishing word learning is called Knowledge-Rating
(Barr & Johnson, 1997). In Knowledge-Rating “students learn to self-assess their level of
word knowledge so they are better prepared to comprehend text” (p. 116). Here, the Di sini,
teacher is responsible for choosing words from the text that will either enhance or impede
students' comprehension. Students are given a list of the words and asked to rate their
level of word knowledge by using the following statements: I have no idea, I have seen
and heard the word, I can define the word, or I can use it in speaking and writing. After Setelah
the students have filled out the chart the teacher will use discernment as to which words
he/she needs to discuss and develop before students read the text. Generated class
discussions about the new words can provide students with opportunity to express their
understanding or lack thereof before they read. “Knowledge rating is designed to infuse
responsibility and develop word consciousness in students” (Barr & Johnson, 1997,
p.116).
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Vocabulary Development 29
Vocab-O-Gram.
Blachowicz (1986, as cited in Barr & Johnson, 1997) developed a strategy called
the Vocab-O-Gram. Vocab-O-Gram is used before beginning a new unit, text, or story.
When using this strategy students “are going beyond the definition of the word to
consider its application in text and are engaged in much higher thinking about words and
their relationship to text” (pp.127-128). The teacher selects nine key words from the text
that students will use to predict the plot of the story. Students are to place each word in a
box labeled: setting, characters, problem, actions/events, and resolution. Students will Siswa akan
place the words according to their knowledge of story structure and their familiarity with
the words. After students have made their predictions, the class will read the text to
confirm or change predictions about the words.
KWL.
Similar to the Vocab-O-Gram is the KWL chart. KWL is an acronym for
know, want to know, what have I learned? The KWL chart is a great way to introduce
new vocabulary to students, while increasing comprehension. It “emphasizes students'
prior knowledge, categorizes their ideas, encourages them to develop questions for
reading, directs them to seek answers to their questions and determines sources to search
for answers” (Barr & Johnson, 1997, p. 135). After introducing a new topic to the class,
the teacher asks students what they know about the concept. For example, if you were to
begin a lesson on mammals, you may ask the students what they already know about
mammals. The class would generate a comprehensive list of information pertaining to
mammals. The teacher may probe for information by introducing words such as “warm-
blooded, or vertebrates.” After introducing new technical words students can then begin
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Vocabulary Development 30
to expand on their knowledge of mammals while acquiring new vocabulary. Before Sebelum
reading, the class also fills in the section that asks; What do I want to know? The The
students' interest is peaked and they begin to produce questions they want answered
pertaining to mammals. After the lesson, and after the class has found the answers to
their questions (W-want to know) the students fill in L-what I learned, whereby they
demonstrate new vocabulary, and a solid grasp on the new concept.
Semantic Cues
Semantics, as defined by Webster's Dictionary (1997) is “the study of meanings
in language” (p. 664). Gunning (1996) defines semantics as “words that have special
meanings that have to be learned if the words are to be understood fully” (p. 187).
Selecting semantically appropriate words can often cause difficulty for students,
especially when the word has a generalized meaning. Semantics can also present
problems for second language learners by reason of the fact that, “Some single words
forms can have a lot of related meanings, some words have the same form but have
totally different meanings in different contexts, different words sometimes share a
general meaning sense, and some words do not always have a set opposite” (Dufficy,
1996, p. 1996, p. 11). 11). Several important features, such as are homographs, homophones,
synonyms, antonyms, figurative language, multiple meanings, connotation, denotation
will be examined in this section. Including semantic instruction will prove beneficial to
the native English speaker and the ESL student alike.
According to Gunning (1996) homographs are “two or more words that have the
same spelling but different origins and may have the same or different pronunciations”
(p. 188). For example, the word bank may mean a place where money is stored or the
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Vocabulary Development 31
sideways slope of a surface along a curve. This variation in meaning may present a
problem if the immediate context is not provided. The fact is that in the English language
many word forms occur in different contexts with quite different meanings.
Homographs, “make spelling easier but reading more difficult” (Gunning, 1996, p. 188).
Some homographs even have different pronunciations with the same spelling : bow, lead,
dove, sow, sewer, desert, lead, and read. Although spelled the same, the pronunciation
and meanings of the words are drastically different. As students read more they will be
accustomed to the variation of same spelled words with different meanings, and will thus
learn the importance of relying on contextual clues. Research indicates that “learning a
new meaning for an old word is more difficult than learning a new meaning for a new
word” (Gunning, p. 188). Consequently, students will need guided practice for
recognizing and developing awareness for homographs.
Homophones, “are words that are pronounced the same but differ in spelling and
meaning and often have different origins as well” (Gunning, 1996, p. 188). For example, Misalnya,
there/their/they're, principal/principle, stationary/stationery, your/you're, weather/
whether, and too/to/two. These words may present problems for students phonemically
because it would seem that different blends of phonemes could not produce the same
sounds. suara. Homophones may also present problems for phonemic spellers, who rely upon
sounds, dipthongs and schwas to sound out words. Context will provide the reader with
adequate information regarding meaning; however, “it is important to note spelling to
interpret the meaning of a sentence correctly—for example, She was last seen hanging
onto a buoy ” (Gunning, p. 188).
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Vocabulary Development 32
Synonyms and antonyms are important components of semantical analysis for
vocabulary development. Synonyms can help students connect new words to old words.
Synonyms are not completely interchangeable in all contexts, but in most cases, where
synonyms are substituted, the overall meaning of the sentence does not change. In using Dalam menggunakan
“synonym or antonym clues, an easier word is used to define the more difficult target
word” (Barr & Johnson, 1997, p. 131). For example, the word, begin has multiple
synonyms, such as start, commence, originate, and initiate. The word may also be
defined by its antonyms: end, close, terminate, conclusion, finish, and stop. By allowing
children to explore new synonyms and antonyms of old words, the connection between
prior knowledge and new knowledge can be more easily associated. Although every
synonym or antonym may not completely invite the same contextual meaning and may
not be entirely interchangeable, “initial synonyms and antonyms do not have to be
precise. tepat. They must, however, be designed to give students an approximate meaning that
can be redefined as they encounter the word in later reading” (Carnine, Silbert &
Kameenui, 1990, p. 139). 139). Synonyms should be introduced carefully, because students
should be taught that synonyms are new words which correlate to old words, whereby
new vocabulary is being explained by expanding on existing knowledge of old words.
Antonyms can also be used to further define a familiar word by introducing its
opposite meaning. Teaching antonyms along with synonyms as a strategy for vocabulary
development will expand their word knowledge as well as help “make their writing
clearer and more expressive” (Rubin, 1983, p. 83). Antonyms, like synonyms, are an
effective strategy to teach word meaning. Antonyms can also be used as “non-examples”
of words. For example, a lesson might include showing students a picture of something
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white in order to teach the color black. White would be a “negative” or “non-example”
used to further explain and define black. Another example would be to show students
pictures of singular and plural objects in order to help them differentiate between the two
concepts. konsep. The teacher might point to the singular and say the word “dog.” “Rely on
examples more than abstract principles, or definitions and begin with familiar words”
(Cunningham, 1998, p. 210). Showing non-examples can also help stretch students so
that they limit the set of positive examples. Not only will they be familiar with the new
word, but they will also understand what the new word is not. Carnine, Silbert, and
Kameenui (1990) report “faster acquisition and higher transfer scores of students who are
taught to discriminate between opposites when learning new words” (p. 179).
Figurative language is another dimension to vocabulary development; one where
direct and formalized instruction is necessary. A “metaphor's central position in the
structure of language, and its contribution to concept development and cognitive
functions are combined to assist in the learning of vocabulary” (MacLennan, 1997, p.
98). 98). Figurative language is most often seen in literature, which is defined by Gillian
Lazar (1993) as “a disciplined technique for arousing certain emotions” (p. 2). Figurative Figuratif
language, often used in poetry, plays, novels or short stories, deviates from linguistic
norms. norma. For instance, metaphors often create difficulty for students because the
interpretation is not literal, but rather words are substituted to reveal a likeness between
two things. dua hal. Lazar (1993) defines a metaphor as “a connection or comparison between
things which are usually considered to be unlike each other” (p.105). Students may find
it difficult to unravel the connection between apparently dissimilar objects or concepts.
Understanding metaphors involves engaging in a series of linguistic inferences (Lazar, p.
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Vocabulary Development 34
106). 106). This can be especially difficult if students are limited in their experience with
words. kata-kata. Another feature common to figurative language, which can often present
comprehension problems are, idiomatic expressions. Unfamiliar idiomatic expressions
are “peculiar to a language and cannot be understood from the meanings of the individual
words making up the expression” (Gunning, 1996, p.189). Expressions such as “save
face,” “more than meets the eye,” or “a cold heart” are all idiomatic expressions, often
taught to students as idioms. Idiomatic expressions “hinder comprehension in much the
same way as difficult vocabulary words do” (Gunning, p. 189). As a result, they should
be discussed before reading a selection and introduced as part of new vocabulary terms
and phrases.
Lastly, important to instruction in semantics are the concepts of connotations and
denotations. denotations. The connotation of a word “is its implied, suggested or associated meaning
or meanings,” and the denotation of a word “is its explicit meaning” (Gunning, 1996, p.
190). 190). The connotative use of a word requires an understanding of more than a simple
definition because the meaning is implied rather than explicit. Connotative meanings
also “include all emotional senses associated with the word” (Rubin, 1983, p. 86). This is Ini adalah
exemplified when we think of the connotative meaning of the word mother. For some
this word connotates home-cooked meals, comfort and warmth and for others it may
connotate pain, abandonment, and abuse. Therefore, the connotation of a word is
strongly connected to ones' past experiences and prior knowledge. The denotation of a
word includes a specific meaning so that a word is directly defined within the sentence or
surrounding sentences. For example, consider the sentence: The glass, filled with ice cold
water, shattered when it fell from the counter. The denotation would be that a glass is
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Vocabulary Development 35
something from which we drink; it holds liquids. The connotation of the word might be
drawn from the fact that the glass shattered; meaning that the glass was breakable. If we Jika kita
changed the sentence to say, The glass, filled with ice cold water, bounced on the floor
when it fell from the counter, the denotation would be the same as the sentence above;
however, the connotation would be that because the glass “bounced” because it was a
plastic cup. Our learners should be familiarized with connotations and denotations of
new vocabulary words because it will help them more readily decipher meaning by using
the words in the sentence itself.
Ideas for the Classroom
Two classroom activities specific to semantical analysis are semantic feature
analysis, semantic mapping, synonym substitution and mnemonic method. Each of these Masing-masing
word learning activities is designed to build on words (or concepts) students already
know. tahu.
Semantic feature analysis.
Semantic Feature Analysis is “a way of teaching the significant concepts and
vocabulary of a passage by developing a relationship chart” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 68).
Semantic feature analysis is generally conducted before students begin reading to help
establish meaning amongst words that are closely related. The teacher selects key
vocabulary words, differentiating between superordinate (across) and subordinate (down)
terms. istilah. Next, the teacher should lead students in a discussion about features or
characteristics amongst the words. The discussion should “alert the students to the
relationships among general and specific concepts, and focus their attention on related
new vocabulary” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 68). For example, if a teacher were about to begin a
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Vocabulary Development 36
lesson on sharks, he/she might begin the lesson by having students participate in creating
a semantic feature analysis. The superordinate terms, such as great white, hammerhead,
blue, maco and tiger sharks would appear on the left hand side of the chart; whereas, the
subordinate terms, such as stripes , attacks humans, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, large
shark, small shark, and hammer-shaped head would appear across the top of the chart.
The students would then complete the chart with + (positive) or – (negative) signs that
would suggest the presence or absence of each feature according to each kind of shark. If Jika
students are unsure of whether or not to put a + or – in a particular square, a temporary
“ ?” should be placed so that at the end of the lesson it may be filled in. By using
semantic feature analysis students create a graphic representation of the differences
amongst sharks. This is useful for teachers as well because it can be used as means to
assess students' existing knowledge about the subject matter. However, after much
guided practice, teachers should allow for students to complete the matrix independently.
Semantic mapping (Webbing).
S emantic Mapping is “a device for organizing information graphically according
to categories” (Gunning, 1996, p. 169). Semantic mapping is often called graphic
organizing, brainstorming, or webbing; however, each strategy seeks to accomplish the
same goal—to “represent an important concept and have students list as many related
words as possible, putting them in broad categories” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 68). Teachers Guru
often use semantic webbing as a means to assess prior knowledge as well as to explore
meanings of unknown words, concepts, and topics. Semantic mapping begins with a
central word (or concept) and allows students to build on that word by adding related
concepts and words to the central word and connecting categories. For instance, the Misalnya,
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Vocabulary Development 37
teacher might encircle the word plants on the chalkboard. Under the teacher's direction,
students generate subcategories pertaining to plants such as, how they grow, where they
live, what they need in order to survive, and different kinds of plants—each of these
broad topics branch off from the key word, plants. Students then brainstorm as many
words as they can and place them in the appropriate place. After reading more about
plants, students continually add and revise the map to include new vocabulary and
terminology related to plants. Research indicates that “semantic mapping seemed to help
students categorize words and focus on their similarities and differences, qualities which
may serve as a structure which enhances recall” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 68).
Synonym substitution.
Synonym Substitution is a strategy created by a group of graduate students from
the State University of West Georgia, and is conjoined in Elaine Roberts' article (1999),
“Critical Teacher Thinking and Imaginations: Uncovering Two Vocabulary Strategies to
Increase Comprehension.” Unlike the other strategies, this strategy requires that students
first read the assigned passage or text before new words are introduced. Students are then
asked to self-select difficult words from the passage, where they then decide on a
definition and check that definition in context or a dictionary. Next, students substitute a
synonym for the word in the passage. After, students illustrate their selected word or
present a dramatic presentation of the word to the rest of the class, whereby students are
asked to guess the word. Finally, the word is presented as an analogy. For example, if
the difficult words selected were dagger and saber , students could then draw an analogy
between “ dagger:knife and saber:sword ” where old words are connected to new words
(Roberts, p. 74). Although this strategy is extremely time consuming, it leads to a
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Vocabulary Development 38
significant amount of interaction with each word selected; which in turn leads to greater
retention and word building. The objective of the strategy is “to make comparisons of
vocabulary words and their meanings” (Roberts, p. 74). A variation of the strategy is to
have students work in groups where they select difficult words from a passage and
substitute synonyms for the words. Next, the groups teach the analogies to the class
where they illustrate the word and present it to the class. Eventually students will be able
to substitute synonyms for difficult words, check them in context and draw analogies
between old words and new vocabulary.
Mnemonic method.
A Mnemonic Method is “a way of improving the learner's memory for items
having an associative component” (Rekrut, 1996, p. 69). This method is used to help
students associate new words with old words by using mnemonic devices so that
retention is optimal. The learner first creates “a keyword that sounds like a salient part of
the unknown words, and then links the keyword to the unknown words by means of a
visual image or a sentence” (Rekrut, p. 69). For example, to help remember the word
squabbled , students may produce a sentence such as “the squirrels squabbled over the
one nut I threw on the ground.” Research shows the “effectiveness of the keyword
method in enabling students to recall and apply their newly learned vocabulary as much
as two weeks after instruction” (Rekrut, p. 70). Second language learners often use this
technique when transferring words over from their L1 to the L2. For example, if an Sebagai contoh, jika
Indonesian student were trying to remember the word parrot , they may link it to the
Indonesian word parit , which means ditch—and then link the two words together by
remembering an image of a parrot lying in a ditch (ISP Nation, 1990, p. 166).
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Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is the last of three formal cueing systems discussed in this
paper. kertas. Nagy and Anderson (1984, as cited in Cunningham 1998) estimate “that
approximately 60% of English words have meanings that can be predicted from the
meanings of their parts” (p.193). Instruction in structural analysis involves teaching
students the importance of morphemic analysis in relation to polysyllabic words, and
syllabication. Dorothy Rubin (1983) states that structural analysis “a powerful tool, but it
is dependent on your having at your fingertips knowledge of word parts and their
meanings” (p. 77). Understanding structural analysis is an important part of learning how
to how to read, spell, and comprehend.
Structural analysis depends on morphemes, “the smallest units of meaning”
(Gunning, p. 138), so that instruction in morphemic analysis entails instruction in
compound words, prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Carnine, Silbert and Kameeenui
(1990) define morphemic analysis as “a vocabulary aid [which] involves dividing a word
into its component morphemes, then using the meanings of the individual morphemes to
figure out the meaning of the entire word” (p. 287). If a student can extrapolate meaning
from smaller parts in a word, he/she may be able to synthesize its word parts to make
sense of the whole. O'Rourke (1974, as cited in Gunning 1996) describes morphemic
analysis as “one of the most powerful word-attack skills, but also one of the most
neglected” (p. 137). When teaching morphemic analysis skills to students, concepts
should be taught incrementally, introducing its different components over time.
Structural analysis concepts taught should be generative, rather than taught mechanically
and in isolation. dan di isolasi. Carnine, Silbert and Kameenui (1990) underscore two rules for
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Vocabulary Development 40
introducing morphemes to students: introduce the most functional affixes first (un-, re-,
pre-), and separate morphemes likely to be confused eg, -er, -est. These two rules will
help make the input more comprehensible for all students. Root and base words should
be taught in conjunction with affixes. “As with prefixes and suffixes, roots that should be
taught are those that appear with high frequency,” such as, - graph-, -astro-, -port-, -tele-
or –auto-. (Gunning, 1996, p. 141). Teachers should take advantage of every opportunity
to enhance students recognition of root words.
Compound words “come in three forms: solid, hyphenated, or open” (Gunning, p.
138)—for instance, upstairs ( solid), high-rise (hyphenated), and top hat (open).
Compound words often define themselves by the fact that the conjoined words reveal its
meaning. makna. The words, backdoor, midnight , and nutshell provide clues to the words
meaning, whereas password, powerhouse and sand dollar do not help the reader decipher
any meaning. Teachers should introduce compound words to students in context and
teach them to look for word meaning within the confines of the words themselves.
Prefixes and suffixes were spoken of earlier in contextual analysis but they also
play a large part in structural analysis. Research indicates that “prefixes are easier to
learn than suffixes” (Gunning, 1996, p. 139). Prefixes appear at the front of words, are
easily identified and have a predictable pronunciation; whereas, suffixes usually change
the meaning and part of speech of a word—for example, adding the suffix - ence to the
word preference changes it from the verb form to the noun form. White, Power, and
White (1989, as cited in Cunningham 1998) found 782 words prefixed by un -, 401 words
prefixed by re-, 313 words prefixed by in-, im-, ir-, il- and 216 words prefixed by dis-.
This provides pertinent information to teachers about which prefixes to introduce to
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Vocabulary Development 41
students. siswa. White et al. (1989) also found that the average third grader would encounter
230 words, the meaning of which would be obvious if the base word and the four prefixes
were known. Another words, the more familiarity students have with prefixes and
suffixes, the more effectively they will deal with unknown words. They further
concluded that “the number of analyzable words for each grade level would double if all
prefixes, not just the most common four, were included [in morphemic analysis]” (pp.
194-195). This skill is especially relevant to multisyllabic words where morphemic
complexity elevates.
Multisyllabic words are words that usually contain three or more morphemes.
White, Power, and White (1989) concluded that “skilled readers use structural analysis in
three ways: to recognize known words more efficiently, to remember the meanings and
spellings of partially learned words, and to figure out the meanings and pronunciations of
new words” (as cited in Cunningham, 1998, p.198). More instruction in morphology will
directly impact students who undoubtedly will have difficulty reading long words.
Showing students how distinct parts of words directly contribute to word meaning is an
essential component of morphemic instruction. Fundamental to decoding multisyllabic
words is an ability to discern root or base words within the larger words. The root of a
word is “the part of the word that is left after all the affixes have been removed”
(Gunning, 1996, p. 141). For example, the word nonexportable contains three
morphemes, non-, export, and - able. If students were taught the prefix non- and the
suffix -able then their chances of recognizing the root word export would be
greater—and thus help define the word for them. Although multisyllabic words may not
occur frequently, they usually carry important meaning essential for comprehension and
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“morphological relationships are the keys to unlocking pronunciation, spelling and
meaning” (Cunningham, 1998, p. 214).
Syllabication is the last component of structural analysis. Once students have a
solid grasp of phonics rules they can apply those rules to the different syllables in the
word. kata. Syllabication is “words that are broken down into syllables phonemically, or
according to their sounds rather than orthographically” (Gunning, 1996, p. 133).
Syllabication is not often taught in today's classrooms and cannot be introduced until
students have an understanding of reading, writing and spelling. “Fortunately, many of
the most frequent words used in English have just one syllable” (Gunning, p. 132).
Because the most frequent words are one syllable, teachers can begin instruction in
syllabication when students are familiar with most of those words. Syllabication is
important because it is “designed to help students decode an unfamiliar word by
separating it into its syllabic parts and then recombining the parts into a whole”
(Gunning, p. 133). Gunning recommends an informal introduction to syllabication in the
later half of the first grade.
There are two approaches to teaching students syllabication—the generalization
approach and the pattern approach. The generalization approach suggests teaching
students general rules for dividing words into syllables. Gunning (1996) suggests
introducing syllabication to students using the following techniques in successive order.
Begin by telling students that most prefixes and suffixes form their own syllables.
Introducing easy affixes such as , -ly, -ed, -er, -ing and dividing words on the chalkboard
using such suffixes will demonstrate to students the process of dividing easy affixes into
syllables.
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Compound words are another simple way of introducing students to syllabication
because they almost always divide into syllables between the two words. Next, introduce
the two consonants between two vowels rule. This rule states that when two consonants
are sandwiched between two vowels the word divides between the two consonants. For Untuk
instance, the division in the words, cur-tain, and cand-le, illustrate the rule. However, Namun,
there is a disclaimer to this rule which states that digraphs cannot be separated even
though there may be two consonants between two vowels; this is seen in the words moth-
er and feath-er . One consonant between two vowels is the next rule Gunning suggests.
Words such as, hea-ven, and Jes-us would divide this way. Last, is the final le rule which
states that whenever there is an le at the end of a word, it is divided with the preceding
letter— sad-dle and pur-ple would divide in such a way.
The second approach, the pattern approach, is used to help students decode
polysyllabic words which often cause difficulty with comprehension. The pattern Pola
approach to syllabication helps students by teaching them to separate large words into
smaller, more easily recognizable and pronounceable parts. “The advantage of this
approach is that students learn to recognize pronounceable units in words. . . .” (Gunning,
1996, p. 1996, p. 135). 135). If a student encounters the word sprinkle he/she can easily divide it into its
syllabic parts, sprink-le, in order to help sound out the unfamiliar word. The same would
go for a larger word such as, stig-ma-tize. Using the pattern approach, students are
introduced to a large amount of words, each of which contain the same high-frequency
syllable. suku kata. For example, using the short a will help students learn how to the divide words
into their respective syllables— at, sat, cat, mate and plate . The advantage of introducing
words with the same vowel sound is that students become accustomed to the sound and
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Vocabulary Development 44
word according to its familiar parts, and can then practice dividing words with less
difficulty whereby students are equipped with decoding skills for large, unknown words.
Ideas for the Classroom
Structural analysis is an extremely effective word attack strategy. However, Namun,
practical classroom activities seemed to be rather dry. Students do need guided practice
with the strategy but it should be included in instruction throughout the day, varied in
context and application. Practice with individual concepts should also be carried out, so
students are not confused. For example, prefixes should be introduced separately from
suffixes. akhiran.
Practice with prefixes.
Gunning (1996) suggests introducing prefixes to students by placing the following
words on the board: pregame, prepay, preview, pretest, predawn . After a brief discussion
on the root words, teachers should note how the prefix pre- changes the meaning of each
root word. This is an opportune time to explain the importance of understanding the
meaning of prefixes and how they can help figure out unknown words. Using the words
above, students are asked to complete an exercise where they fill in the blanks of
sentences. kalimat. After students have seen the relevance to learning the prefix pre- , other
prefixes such as, post- and inter- can be introduced.
Lessons for specific prefixes.
Cunningham (1998) suggests writing nine words that begin with the prefix re- on
index cards. Of these nine words, three words should mean “back” (rebound, return,
rewind) and three words should mean “again” (redo, replay, restate). The words chosen
should be words with which students are familiar. Students are then asked to place the
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Vocabulary Development 45
words in columns according to whether the prefix re- makes the word mean “back” or
“again.” Students can practice this independently by placing re- words in columns
labeled “back” and “again.” At the end of the lesson “review the chart and help students
summarize what they learned about re- as a pronunciation, spelling, and sometimes
meaning chunk in words” (pp. 205-206).
Some more suffixes.
Two suffixes which often cause confusion for students because of their similarity
in sound are, - tion and – sion. The teacher should write - tion on index cards, some of
which are related to “doing” and others that are not. After students have recognized that
all of the words end in - tion , the teacher should divide the words into two columns. For Untuk
some words, the meaning is obvious despite the fact that the suffix - tion is added to the
word. kata. For example, “coin collec tion ,” “an elec tion ,” or “an attrac tion .” For other words,
the suffix tion do not lead the reader to any conclusion regarding the meaning of the root
word—men tion , tradi tion or frac tion . Have students decide which column the words
ending with the suffix - tion should be listed under—the column which means “doing” or
the one that does not appear to have any relation to “doing.”
Morphemic analysis.
Morphemic Analysis activities are suggested by Gunning (1996) to reinforce the
strategy. strategi. Once students have been instructed in prefixes and suffixes, they should
practice decoding polysyllabic words using morphemic analysis. Begin by writing words
such as “ enrollment, unimaginable, unfavorable, irregularly, uncomfortable,
photographer, and disagreeable ” on the chalkboard and have students break the word
apart into their respective morphemes. An extension of this activity would be to have
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Vocabulary Development 46
students create webs of roots and affixes. For instance, using the root expl students
would create a web based on all of the words containing the prefix. Words such as,
explain, explode, explosion, exploit, and explore would be a part of the web for expl.
Dictionary Definitions
Although this paper seeks to equip teachers with alternative choices in vocabulary
instruction; dictionary usage is not strictly forbidden; in fact, “the dictionary is probably
the most used of all reference sources” (Rubin, 1983, p. 122). Definitional approaches
are effective when used in conjunction with other strategies. Vocabulary instruction is
indeed, instruction in word definitions. However, “definitions alone can lead to only a
relative superficial level of word knowledge” (Nagy, 1988-89, pp. 4-5). Albeit,
dictionary skills are an essential tool aiding in alphabetizing, parts of speech, as well as in
synonyms and antonyms; however, implementing dictionary instruction into vocabulary
instruction should be introduced in meaningful ways. Looking up word after word and
recording its definition can be tedious and research shows that students may still not be
able to gain comprehension of a passage by use of a dictionary definition. Teachers Guru
should encourage students to use dictionaries to look up unfamiliar words. Research Penelitian
indicates that when students encounter an unfamiliar word they “should continue reading
the paragraph in which the word appears to see if the context gives the word meaning. If Jika
context does not give the meaning students should look up the word” (Carnine, Silbert,
Kameenui, 1990, p. 286). Dictionary usage should be used as a secondary source to
contextual, semantical, and structural analysis of an unknown word. Only after a student
has exhausted these less timely and most beneficial strategies should a dictionary
definition be sought. As students become more proficient readers and strategizers
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dictionary definitions can actually be effective for introducing new vocabulary as well
multiple meanings for the same word. For less proficient readers, dictionaries should be
used only for words in which students can accurately discern meaning when more than
one definition is given.
Using a dictionary is a complex task. First, students must understand the concept
of alphabetizing, which means they must have a solid grasp of the alphabet itself. They Mereka
also must understand that after assessing the first letter of a word, they must beyond to
the second, third and fourth letter to find the word in a dictionary, as is the case with the
words; ten, tent, tentacle, tenacity, and tentative. In order to help develop these skills,
teachers often begin dictionary instruction by introducing guide words so that students
can more quickly find the word for which they are searching. There are several other
factors that may obstruct student's success in dictionary usage. Such factors include:
acronyms (FBI, CIA), contractions (aren't, can't), numbers (7 versus seven), and prefixes
and suffixes which are often listed as a separate entry.
Dictionaries provide students with a vast amount of information per word. Each Setiap
entry first begins with information to help students construct the correct pronunciation of
each word. When looking in Webster's Dictionary (1997) for the entry on bomb, the
definition reveals a considerable amount of information; “\ bäm \ n 1 : to attack with
artillery or bombers 2 : to assail persistently 3 : to subject tot he impact of rapidly
moving particles.” This definition first reveals the correct pronunciation of the word,
which may be confusing due to the silent “b” at the end, it also reveals its part of speech,
and then lists three possible definitions for the word. Not knowing how to pronounce a
word can interfere with comprehension. “If students have read the word quiche but have
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Vocabulary Development 48
no idea how to pronounce it, they will not recognize it as being the same word they saw
in print when they hear it spoken” (Gunning, 1996, p. 157). Although students may
know a word when they hear it, they may not recognize it in text, which easily interferes
with comprehension. Dictionary instruction should be integrated throughout different
curriculum areas. kurikulum daerah. Instruction should not be laborious dictionary work, where students
look up several words, write the definition, including parts of speech and pronunciation.
Rather dictionary usage should be used to complement lessons in English, science, social
studies and even math. An integrated approach will teach students to use a dictionary as
a supplemental resource when all other word recognition skills are unsuccessful.
There are several reasons why research supports using a dictionary as a resource
only when students have first been equipped with other word attack skills. Dictionary Kamus
definitions do not provide students with enough information for adequate use of the word
in an appropriate manner. Nagy (1988-89) states two reasons that account for students
having difficulty writing a sentence for unknown words while only having a dictionary
definition. Definisi. “One is that definitions alone tell little about how a word is actually used” and
second “it is difficult to write a sentence for a truly unfamiliar word, given only the
definition, [because they] do not effectively convey new concepts” (p. 6). This is Ini adalah
especially true when definitions include the word itself to define the new term. For Untuk
example, when using Webster's Dictionary (1997) to define the word equinoctial, the
definition states, “relating to an equinox” (p. 256). The same is true of the word
existential which is defined as “of or relating to existence” (p. 266). Using such
definitions to apply meaning to new words is hardly possible if the word is given to
students outside of its context and if the student is completely unacquainted with the
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word. kata. Although the definition may be accurate, it does not contain enough information to
allow students to transfer the word over into a new context. Furthermore, if the word is
presented to students in context and they are expected to stop and look up each obscure
word, it “interrupts the flow of the story and disturbs comprehension” (Gunning, 1996, p.
159). 159). Consequently, definitional approaches should be integrated in content, should
evoke discussion and should represent a positive, yet alternative resource for students.
Ideas for the Classroom
Dictionary activities have become tedious and senseless acts which are time-
consuming and laborious. This section of the paper seeks to provide information on how
dictionary usage may be integrated in curriculum through meaningful and functional
activities. kegiatan.
Fictionary dictionary.
Gunning (1996) suggests a dictionary reinforcement activity entitled Fictionary
Dictionary . Fictionary dictionary is “an excellent game for acquainting students with the
creation of definitions” (p. 159). It is suggested that the game be played in groups of four
to six. Teachers preselect relevant yet difficult words from a dictionary. They ask
students to create fictitious definitions for the words. The teacher then collects the slips
of paper with the definitions, including the correct dictionary definition. The moderator
shuffles the slips and reads them aloud. Students are asked to vote (only once) on the
correct definition. The round ends when the correct definition has been identified.
Players receive two points if someone voted on the definition they created, and players
receive one point for identifying the correct definition. The game ends when each child
has an opportunity to be the moderator
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Vocabulary Development 50
Dictionary timing.
In Dictionary Timing students are put in groups of four to five and given a set of
pre-selected words used in a sentence (preferably from a text the students are going to
read). Using a timer, the groups are given twenty minutes to look up the words in a
dictionary and to create definitionally appropriate sentences for each word. When the Ketika
timer goes off, the students are asked to read their sentences aloud. Each group receives
one point for the correct dictionary definition and one point for an apropos sentence. The The
game ends when, as a class, each word has a correct dictionary definition and sentence
attached to it. The game can be adapted to have students find the correct pronunciation
of a word, or its part of speech.
Fun with questions.
Questioning strategies can be time-consuming activities; however, they promote
vocabulary growth and dictionary usage within content areas. Teachers pre-select
pertinent words and arranges them into fun questions for the students to answer. The The
students must look the word up in a dictionary in order to answer the questions. Dorothy
Rubin (1983) offers these fun questions: Is litter a term in the metric system? Is haiku a
Hawaiian mountain? Is a marigold a flower? Are yen used in Hungary? What is a Apa itu
centipede? Can you hold an enzyme? The teacher should choose words that will appear
in an upcoming text. The words preselected for each question should be new words
pertinent to subject areas and should be ones that may obstruct comprehension. Students Siswa
may work to answer the questions in groups or alone.
Dictionaries, dictionaries, dictionaries.
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Vocabulary Development 51
Dorothy Rubin (1983) suggests this activity in order to help students become
familiar with different dictionaries. Students are asked to look up the pronunciation of
several words in several different dictionaries. In order to begin, students must first
acquaint themselves with the pronunciation key in the front of each dictionary. Rubin Rubin
shows how the pronunciation diacritical marks for the words, coupon, courage, and covet
appear differently in five different dictionaries. Each of the different diacritical marks
will allow the reader to correctly pronounce the word, even though each is unlike the
other. lainnya. The obvious next step would be to have students examine the different definitions
in the various dictionaries.
Unsuccessful Vocabulary Instruction
Although the majority of the research indicates that direct vocabulary instruction
reaps a myriad of benefits for students' reading comprehension skills, still some research
indicates that there are specific reasons for failure in vocabulary instruction. Nagy (1988-
89) states that one reason for unsuccessful vocabulary instruction may be due to a lack of
“vocabulary instruction which produces in-depth word knowledge” (p. 3). A superficial
understanding of a word's meaning will not transfer over into other contexts. This Ini
results in students merely having partial knowledge of a word. Partial knowledge of a
word “does not produce a sufficient depth of word knowledge” (Nagy, p. 4). Another Lain
reason that contributes to unsuccessful vocabulary instruction as it relates to
comprehension is “ redundancy of text . . . .” a certain proportion of unfamiliar words in the
text does not measurably hinder comprehension, then instruction on these words would
not measurably improve it” (Nagy, p. 3). This statement accentuates the fact that
teachers should carefully and mindfully select words for instruction ahead of time so
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Vocabulary Development 52
words that students are able to decode and define on their own are not included in direct
instruction. instruksi. This information should be carefully noted so that vocabulary instruction is
fruitful. berbuah. This research does not propagate throwing direct instruction out the window
altogether; rather, it emphasizes some reasons for unsuccessful instruction so teachers can
navigate their way around these pitfalls.
Another pitfall is the fact that many teachers rely upon dictionary definitions to
help students learn new words. Not only do definitions leave students with a superficial
understanding of a new word “but they do not always contain enough information to
allow a person to use the word correctly” (Nagy, 1988-89, p. 5). Nagy clearly
underscores that reliance upon definitions alone will not effectively convey new concepts
to students. kepada siswa. Comprehension is the goal of reading and so isolating words out of context
and relying upon a definition to provide meaning and clarity for a new concept will not
help to develop student's vocabulary. Nagy states that “reading comprehension depends
on a wealth of encyclopedic knowledge and not merely on definitional knowledge of the
words in the text” (p. 7). This is to say that students cannot merely hold fast to dictionary
definitions, they need to explore words in different contexts, in different tenses, and as
different parts of speech.
Conclusion Kesimpulan
All the literature reviewed for this paper substantiated that wide reading is
essential to word learning. Students must see and read words in context several times
before committing them to memory; however, direct instruction in vocabulary skills is an
essential tool needed for independent word learning and comprehension. Direct Langsung
instruction proved to be effective and essential to vocabulary growth. Janice Harmon
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Vocabulary Development 53
(1999) so succinctly summarizes the benefits children receive from formalized word
learning, “the more words known by the reader, the better are their chances to understand
and enjoy what they are reading” (p. 70). Reading unlocks the door to a new world;
filling it with adventure, action, history, joy and even sadness. The ultimate goal of
reading is comprehension. Without comprehension children will never truly enjoy
reading and without a sufficient vocabulary they will never truly comprehend. The long-
standing effects of an abundant vocabulary will amplify throughout students' academic
careers and will directly affect students success in all areas of curriculum. “Vocabulary
size correlates with success in all areas of curriculum (Manning, 1999, p. 103).
Consequently, this paper sought not only to reveal how advantageous vocabulary
instruction is but how simply it can be directly implemented into each and every
classroom. kelas.
A well-established vocabulary will undoubtedly serve students throughout life.
Rupley, Logan and Nichols (1998-99) state, “as children's vocabulary grows their ability
to comprehend what they read grows as well” (p. 336). Students' vocabularies are
continually assessed throughout their school years and beyond—the Stanford-Binet,
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Standardized Achievement Test (SAT), and the
Graduate Record Exam (GRE). These tests measure students' verbal intelligence, which
is an indicator of reading, writing, spelling and comprehension success. These tests are
seemingly biased and inadequate in reliability and validity; nonetheless, all students will
eventually have their vocabulary knowledge called into question. As educators, we have
a large responsibility to our students, with a limited amount of time. Therefore, Oleh karena itu,
vocabulary instruction should be integrated and woven throughout content areas; it
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Vocabulary Development 54
should not constitute a subject in and of itself. The literature attested to the fact that
contextual analysis provides the greatest amount of information concerning an unknown
word's meaning.
There is an abundance of literature pertaining to vocabulary development.
However, further research in the area of independent word learning may be beneficial.
Students draw and rely upon several strategies to determine meaning, and there seemed to
be a lack of information pertaining to which strategies students at varying levels would
benefit from most. There may also be some benefits to having students engage in
systematic study and practice tests during their school years. This may further acquaint
them with “gatekeeping” educational testing formats. In summary, there is a plethora of
literature regarding the effects of direct vocabulary instruction and the overall conclusion
drawn was that students reap a myriad of benefits across the curriculum as a direct result
of vocabulary instruction along with wide reading.
Teks asli Inggris
thinking skills, comprehension, and an understanding of sequential ideas and facts needed
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